Carbohydrate Digestion and Metabolism by

ssemujju Stephen

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are called carbohydrates because they are essentially hydrates of carbon (i.e. they are composed of carbon and water and have a composition of (CH2O)n.

The major nutritional role of carbohydrates is to provide energy and digestible carbohydrates provide 4 kilocalories per gram. No single carbohydrate is essential, but carbohydrates do participate in many required functions in the body.

Photosynthesis: Suns energy becomes part of glucose molecule

energy Carbon dioxide Water Chlorophyll

GLUCOSE

6 CO2 + 6 H20 + energy (sun)

C6H12O6 + 6 O2

Carbohydrates
glucose provides energy for the brain and of energy for muscles and tissues glycogen is stored glucose glucose is immediate energy glycogen is reserve energy

Carbohydrates
all plant food milk

carbohydrates are not equal

simple carbohydrates complex carbohydrates

Simple Carbohydrates
sugars
monosaccharides single sugars disaccharides 2 monosaccharides

Simple Sugars -

Simple Carbs
monosaccharides
all are 6 carbon hexes
6 carbons 12 hydrogens 6 oxygens arrangement differs
accounts for varying sweetness

glucose, fructose, galactose

Glucose
mild sweet flavor known as blood sugar essential energy source found in every disaccharide and polysaccharide

Fructose
sweetest sugar found in fruits and honey added to soft drinks, cereals, deserts

Galactose
hardly tastes sweet rarely found naturally as a single sugar

Disaccharides
pairs of the monosaccharides
glucose is always present 2nd of the pair could be fructose, galactose or another glucose taken apart by hydrolysis put together by condensation hydrolysis and condensation occur with all energy nutrients maltose, sucrose, lactose

Disaccharides

Condensation
making a disaccharide chemical reaction linking 2 monosaccharides

Hydrolysis
breaking a disaccharide
water molecule splits occurs during digestion

Maltose
2 glucose units produced when starch breaks down not abundant

Sucrose
fructose and glucose tastes sweet
fruit, vegetables, grains

table sugar is refined sugarcane and sugar beets brown, white, powdered

Lactose
glucose and galactose main carbohydrate in milk known as milk sugar

Complex Carbohydrates
starches and fibers polysaccharides
chains of monosaccharides

Complex carbohydrates
Oligosaccharides Polysaccharides
Starch Glycogen Dietary fiber

Complex Carbohydrates
polysaccharides
glycogen and starch
built entirely of glucose

fiber
variety of monosaccharides and other carbohydrate derivatives

Glycogen
limited in meat and not found in plants
not an important dietary source of carbohydrate

BUT
all glucose is stored as glycogen long chains allow for hydrolysis and release of energy

Glycogen

Major storage carbohydrate in animals Long straight glucose G chains G Branched every 4-8 glucose residues a 1-4 link More branched than starch Less osmotic pressure Easily mobilized

G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G

a 1-6 link

Starches
stored in plant cells body hydrolyzes plant starch to glucose

Starch
Major storage carbohydrate in higher plants Amylose long straight glucose chains Amylopectin branched every 24-30 glucosec residues Provides 80% of dietary calories in humans worldwide

Fiber
structural parts of plants
found in all plant derived food

bonds of fibers cannot be broken down during the digestive process

minimal or no energy available

Fiber types
cellulose

pectins lignins resistant starches

classified as fibers escape digestion and absorption

Fiber Characteristics
soluble fibers, viscous, fermentable
easily digested by bacteria in colon associated with protection against heart disease and diabetes
lower cholesterol and glucose levels

found in legumes and fruits

Fiber
insoluble and not easily fermented
promote bowel movements alleviate constipation found in grains and vegetables

Carbohydrate Digestion
break down into glucose
body is able to absorb and use

large starch molecules

extensive breakdown

disaccharides
broken once

monosaccharides
dont need to be broken down

Carbohydrate Digestion
begins in mouth
chewing releases saliva enzyme amylase hydrolyzes starch to polysaccharides and maltose

stomach
no enzymes available to break down starch acid does some breakdown fibers in starch provide feeling of fullness

Digestion
Pre-stomach Salivary amylase : a 1-4 endoglycosidase
G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G G

a Limit dextrins
G G

amylase
a 1-6 link
G
G G

G G G G G

maltotriose
G G

a 1-4 link

maltose

isomaltose

Stomach
Not much carbohydrate digestion Acid and pepsin to unfold proteins Ruminants have forestomachs with extensive microbial populations to breakdown and anaerobically ferment feed

 small intestine
majority of carbohydrate digestion takes place here pancreatic amylase reduces carbs to glucose chains or disaccharides specific enzymes finish the job
maltase
maltose into 2 glucose

sucrase
sucrose into glucose and fructose

lactase
lactose into glucose and galactose

Small Intestine
Pancreatic enzymes a-amylase
maltotriose
G G G G G G G G

maltose
G G

amylose

a amylase
G G G G G G

G G G G G G G G G G G

amylopectin

a Limit dextrins

Oligosaccharide digestion..cont
G G G

a Limit dextrins
sucrase

G G G

G G G

G G

Glucoamylase (maltase) or a-dextrinase a-dextrinase

G G G G G

maltase
G
G G

G G G

Small intestine
Portal for transport of virtually all nutrients Water and electrolyte balance
Enzymes associated with intestinal surface membranes i. Sucrase ii. a dextrinase iii. Glucoamylase (maltase) iv. Lactase v. peptidases

 large intestine
1-4 hours for sugars and starches to be digested only fibers remain
attract water, which softens stool

bacteria ferment some fibers

water, gas, short-chain fatty acids (used for energy)

Carbohydrate Absorption
glucose can be absorbed in the mouth majority absorbed in small intestine
active transport
glucose and galactic

facilitated diffusion
fructose smaller rise in blood glucose

Carbohydrate absorption
Hexose transporter

apical

basolateral

Carbohydrate malabsorption

Lactose intolerance (hypolactasia) Decline lactase with age Lactose fermented in LI

Gas and volatile FA Water retention diarrhea/bloating

Not all populations

Northern European low incidence Asian/African Americans High

b 1-4 linkage

Lactose Intolerance
more lactose is consumed than can be digested
lactose molecules attract water
cause floating, abdominal discomfort, diarrhea

intestinal bacteria feed on undigested lactose

produce acid and gas

Lactose Intolerance
age, damage, medication, diarrhea, malnutrition management requires dietary change
6 grams (1/2 cup) usually tolerable take in gradually hard cheeses & cottage cheese enzyme drops or tablets

lactose free diet is extremely difficult to accomplish

Metabolism the chemical changes

that take place in a cell that produce energy and basic materials needed for important life processes
-millions of cells -Multiple organs (liver, adipose, heart, brain) -Thousands of enzymes -Various conditions (fed, fasted, exercise, stress)

Carbohydrate Metabolism
1. 2. 3. 4. 1/3 of bodys glycogen is stored in liver
released as glucose to bloodstream

eat intake glucose liver condenses extra glucose to glycogen blood glucose falls liver hydrolyzes glycogen to glucose

Glycogen is bulky, so we store only so much: short term energy supply Fat is the long term energy supply.

 Serve as primary source of energy in the cell Central to all metabolic processes
Glucose
Cytosol - anaerobic
Hexokinase

Carbohydrates

Pentose Phosphate Shunt

Glucose-6-P
glycolysis

Glc-1- phosphate

glycogen

Pyruvate

Glucose for Energy

enzymes break apart glucose yielding energy inadequate supply of carbohydrates
ketone bodies (fat fragments) are an alternate energy source during starvation excess ketones can lead to ketosis: imbalance of acids in body

minimum of 50 100 grams of carbs/day are needed to avoid ketosis

cytosol mitochondria (aerobic)

Pyruvate

Aceytl CoA
FATTY ACIDS

Krebs cycle AMINO ACIDS

Reducing equivalents

Oxidative Phosphorylation (ATP)

Controlling Metabolic Flux

1. Control enzyme levels 2. Control of enzyme activity (activation or inhibition) 3. Compartamentalization
Fatty acid oxidation occurs in mitochondrial matrix Fatty acid synthesis occurs in endoplasmic reticulum membrane exposed to the cytoplasm of the cell.

4. Hormonal control

Glucose Homeostasis
maintaining an even balance of glucose is controlled by insulin and glucagon
insulin
moves glucose into the blood

glucagon
brings glucose out of storage

Intestine

1
When a person eats, blood glucose rises.

Maintaining Blood Glucose Homeostasis

Pancreas Insulin

2
High blood glucose stimulates the pancreas to release insulin.

3
Liver

Insulin stimulates the uptake of glucose into cells and storage as glycogen in the liver and muscles. Insulin also stimulates the conversion of excess glucose into fat for storage.

Fat cell

Muscle

4
As the body's cells use glucose, blood levels decline.

Pancreas Glucagon

Low blood glucose stimulates the pancreas to release glucagon into the bloodstream. Glucagon stimulates liver cells to break down glycogen and release glucose into the blood.a

6
Glucose Insulin Glucagon Glycogen
a

Liver

The stress hormone epinephrine and other hormones also bring glucose out of storage.

Blood glucose begins to rise.

Carbohydrate Metabolism/ UtilizationTissue Specificity

Muscle cardiac and skeletal Oxidize glucose/produce and store glycogen (fed) Breakdown glycogen (fasted state) Shift to other fuels in fasting state (fatty acids) Adipose and liver Glucose acetyl CoA Glucose to glycerol for triglyceride synthesis Liver releases glucose for other tissues Nervous system Always use glucose except during extreme fasts Reproductive tract/mammary Glucose required by fetus Lactose major milk carbohydrate Red blood cells No mitochondria Oxidize glucose to lactate Lactate returned to liver for Gluconeogenesis

Imbalance
diabetes
after food intake, blood glucose rises and is not regulated because insulin is inadequate

hypoglycemia
blood glucose drops dramatically
too much insulin, activity, inadequate food intake, illness diet adjustment includes fiber-rich carbs and protein

Glycemic Index
way of classifying food according to their ability to raise blood glucose much controversy

Sugar
recommended intake
added sugar = no more than 10% of energy intake

Starch and Fiber

diet that includes starch, fiber and natural sugars
whole grains, vegetables, legumes, fruits
may protect against heart disease and stroke reduces the risk of type 2 diabetes enhances the health of the large intestine can promote weight loss

Artificial Sweeteners
help keep sugar and energy intake down anything we eat has FDA approval
saccharin aspartame acesulfame potassium sucralose neotame

Sugar Replacers
sugar alcohols
provide bulk and sweetness
cookies, gum, candy, jelly

do contain minimal kcal low glycemic response

absorbed slowly

do not cause dental caries

 END