Mobile Communications

Diversity, Multiple Access Techniques

What is Diversity?
Idea: Send the same information over several uncorrelated forms Not all repetitions will be lost in a fade Types of diversity Time diversity repeat information in time spaced so as to not simultaneously have fading Error control coding! Frequency diversity repeat information in frequency channels that are spaced apart Frequency hopping spread spectrum, OFDM Space diversity use multiple antennas spaced sufficiently apart so that the signals arriving at these antennas are not correlated Usually deployed in all base stations but harder at the mobile

Performance Degradation and Diversity

Interleaving
Problem: Errors in wireless channels occur in bursts due to fast fades Error correction codes designed to combat random errors in the code words Hamming codes can detect 2 and correct one bits error in a block of 7 bits If 5 out of 7 bits are in error in a codeword, it is not possible to correct 5 errors Idea: Use block interleaving Spread the errors into five codewords, so that each codeword sees only one error Possible to correct each of the errors

Block Interleaving
Codewords are arranged on below the other Bits are transmitted vertically Burst of errors affect the serially transmitted vertical bits Errors can be corrected Delay at the receiver as several codewords have to be received before the voice packet is reconstructed Receiver needs buffer to store arriving data

Frequency Hopping
Traditionally: transmitter/receiver pair communicate on fixed frequency channel Frequency Hopping Idea: Since noise, fading and interference change somewhat with frequency band used move from band to band Time spent on a single frequency is termed as Dwell Time The centre frequency of the modulated signal is moved randomly among different frequencies For FHSS, the spectrum is spread over a band that is 100 times larger than original traditional radios

Frequency Hopping Concept

Frequency Hopping (cont)

Two types: Slow Hopping Dwell time long enough to transmit several bits in a row (timeslot) Fast Hopping Dwell time on the order of a bit or fraction of a bit (primarily for military systems) Transmitter and receiver must know hopping pattern/ algorithm before communications. Cyclic pattern best for low number of frequencies and combating Fast Fading : Example with four frequencies: f4, f2, f1, f3, f4, f2, f3, . Random pattern best for large number of frequencies, combating co-channel interference Example with six frequencies: f1, f3, f2, f1, f6, f5, f4, f2, f6, Use random number generator with same seed and both ends
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Frequency Hopping (cont)

Slow frequency hopping used in GSM Fast hopping in WLANS Provides frequency diversity By hopping mobile less likely to suffer consecutive deep fades

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

Similar to FHSS DSSS: Two stage modulation technique Transmitter
First stage: the information bit is spread (mapped) into smaller pulses referred to as CHIPS Second stage: the spreading signal is transmitted over a digital modulator

Receiver
Transmitted bits are first demodulated and then passed through a correlator

A correlator indicates the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two random variables

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DSSS (cont)
Multipath fading is reduced by direct sequence signal spreading and better noise immunity DS also allows lower power operation harder to detect and jam Spreading code spreads signal across a wider frequency band As Bandwidth is inversely proportional to the duration of symbol Spread is in direct proportion to number of chip bits W used Processing gain G = W/R; W = chips per sec, R = information bit rate per sec Processing gain is a measure of the improvement in SNR gained by using the additional bandwidth from spreading (18-23 dB in cellular systems)

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DSSS Modulation
The original DataStream is chipped up into a pattern of pulses of smaller duration Good correlation properties Good cross-correlation properties with other patterns Each pattern is called a spread spectrum code

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DSSS Mod/Demod

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DSSS (cont)
Example: IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi Wireless LAN standard Uses DSSS with 11 bit chipping code To transmit a 0, you send [1 1 1 -1 -1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1] To transmit a 1 you send [-1 -1 -1 1 1 1 -1 1 1 -1 1] Processing gain The duration of a chip is usually represented by Tc The duration of the bit is T The ratio T/Tc = R is called the processing gain of the DSSS system For 802.11 R = 11
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Output Without Spreading

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Output With Spreading

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Multiple Access and Mode

Mode Simplex one way communication (e.g., broadcast AM) Duplex two way communication
TDD time division duplex users take turns on the channel FDD frequency division duplex users get two channels one for each direction of communication
For example one channel for uplink (mobile to base station) another channel for downlink (base station to mobile)

Multiple Access determines how users in a cell share the frequency spectrum assigned to the cell: FDMA,TDMA, CDMA Wireless systems often use a combination of schemes; GSM FDD/FDMA/TDMA

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Multiple Access Techniques

FDMA (frequency division multiple access) separate spectrum into non-overlapping frequency bands assign a certain frequency to a transmission channel between a sender and a receiver different users share use of the medium by transmitting on nonoverlapping frequency bands at the same time TDMA (time division multiple access): assign a fixed frequency to a transmission channel between a sender and a receiver for a certain amount of time (users share a frequency channel in time slices)

CDMA (code division multiple access): assign a user a unique code for transmission between sender and receiver, users transmit on the same frequency at the same time
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FDMA
FDMA is simplest and oldest method Bandwidth F is divided into T non-overlapping frequency channels Guard bands minimize interference between channels Each station is assigned a different frequency Can be inefficient if more than T stations want to transmit Receiver requires high quality filters for adjacent channel rejection Used in First Generation Cellular (NMT)

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Frequency Division Multiple Access

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FDD/FDMA General Scheme, example AMPS (B Block)

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TDMA
Users share same frequency band in non-overlapping time intervals, eg, by round robin Receiver filters are just windows instead of bandpass filters (as in FDMA) Guard time can be as small as the synchronization of the network permits All users must be synchronized with base station to within a fraction of guard time Guard time of 30-50 microseconds common in TDMA Used in GSM, NA-TDMA, (PDC) Pacific Digital Cellular

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Time Division Multiple Access

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CDMA
Code Division Multiple Access Narrowband message signal is multiplied by very large bandwidth spreading signal using direct sequence spread spectrum All users can use same carrier frequency and may transmit simultaneously Each user has own unique access spreading codeword which is approximately orthogonal to other users codewords Receiver performs time correlation operation to detect only specific codeword, other users codewords appear as noise due to decorrelation

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Code Division Multiple Access

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simple example illustrating CDMA

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Simple CDMA Transmitter

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Simple CDMA Receiver

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CDMA (cont)
Advantages No timing coordination unlike TDMA CDMA uses spread spectrum, resistant to interference (multipath fading) No hard limit on number of users Large Capacity Increase Disadvantages Implementation complexity of spread spectrum Power control is essential for practical operation Used in IS-95, 3G standards (UMTS, cdma 2000)

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Satellite Communication

Overview
Satellite technology has progressed tremendously over the last 50 years since Arthur C. Clarke first proposed its idea in 1945 in his article in Wireless World. Today, satellite systems can provide a variety of services including broadband communications, audio/video distribution networks, maritime navigation, worldwide customer service and support as well as military command and control. Satellite systems are also expected to play an important role in the emerging 4G global infrastructure providing the wide area coverage necessary for the realization of the Optimally Connected Anywhere, Anytime vision that drives the growth of modern telecom industry.

Intelsat
INTELSAT is the original "Inter-governmental Satellite organization". It once owned and operated most of the World's satellites used for international communications, and still maintains a substantial fleet of satellites. INTELSAT is moving towards "privatization", with increasing competition from commercial operators (e.g. Panamsat, Loral Skynet, etc.). INTELSAT Timeline: Interim organization formed in 1964 by 11 countries Permanent structure formed in 1973 Commercial "spin-off", New Skies Satellites in 1998 Full "privatization" by April 2001 INTELSAT has 143 members and signatories .

Intelsat Structure

Eutelsat
Permanent General Secretariat opened September 1978 Intergovernmental Conference adopted definitive statutes with 26 members on 14 May 1982 Definitive organization entered into force on 1 September 1985 General Secretariat -> Executive Organ Executive Council -> EUTELSAT Board of Signatories

Secretary General -> Director General

Current DG is Giuliano Berretta Currently almost 50 members Moving towards "privatization" Limited company owning and controlling of all assets and activities Also a "residual" intergovernmental organization which will ensure that basic principles of pan-European coverage, universal service, non-discrimination and fair competition are observed by the company

Eutelsat Structure

Communication Satellite
A Communication Satellite can be looked upon as a large microwave repeater It contains several transponders which listens to some portion of spectrum, amplifies the incoming signal and broadcasts it in another frequency to avoid interference with incoming signals.

Motivation to use Satellites

Satellite Missions

Source: Union of Concerned Scientists [www.ucsusa.org]

Satellite Microwave Transmission

Satellites can relay signals over a long distance Geostationary Satellites
Remain above the equator at a height of about 22300 miles (geosynchronous orbits) Travel around the earth in exactly the same time, the earth takes to rotate

Satellite System Elements

Space Segment
Satellite Launching Phase Transfer Orbit Phase Deployment Operation
TT&C - Tracking Telemetry and Command Station SSC - Satellite Control Center, a.k.a.:
OCC - Operations Control Center SCF - Satellite Control Facility

Retirement Phase

Ground Segment
Collection of facilities, Users and Applications

Earth Station = Satellite Communication Station (Fixed or Mobile)

Satellite Uplink and Downlink

Downlink
The link from a satellite down to one or more ground stations or receivers

Uplink
The link from a ground station up to a satellite.

Some companies sell uplink and downlink services to

television stations, corporations, and to other telecommunication carriers. A company can specialize in providing uplinks, downlinks, or both.

Satellite Uplink and Downlink

Satellite Communication

When using a satellite for long distance communications, the satellite acts as a repeater. An earth station transmits the signal up to the satellite (uplink), which in turn retransmits it to the receiving earth station (downlink). Different frequencies are used for uplink/downlink.

Source: Cryptome [Cryptome.org]

Satellite Transmission Links

Earth stations Communicate by sending signals to the satellite on an uplink The satellite then repeats those signals on a downlink The broadcast nature of downlink makes it attractive for services such as the distribution of TV programs

Direct to User Services

One way Service (Broadcasting)

Two way Service (Communication)

Satellite Signals
Used to transmit signals and data over long distances
Weather forecasting Television broadcasting Internet communication Global Positioning Systems

Satellite Transmission Bands

Frequency Band Downlink Uplink

C Ku Ka

3,700-4,200 MHz 5,925-6,425 MHz

11.7-12.2 GHz 17.7-21.2 GHz

14.0-14.5 GHz 27.5-31.0 GHz

The C band is the most frequently used. The Ka and Ku bands are reserved exclusively for satellite communication but are subject to rain attenuation

Types of Satellite Orbits

Based on the inclination, i, over the equatorial plane:
Equatorial Orbits above Earths equator (i=0) Polar Orbits pass over both poles (i=90) Other orbits called inclined orbits (0<i<90)

Based on Eccentricity
Circular with centre at the earths centre Elliptical with one foci at earths centre

Types of Satellite based Networks

Based on the Satellite Altitude
GEO Geostationary Orbits
36000 Km = 22300 Miles, equatorial, High latency

MEO Medium Earth Orbits

High bandwidth, High power, High latency

LEO Low Earth Orbits

Low power, Low latency, More Satellites, Small Footprint

VSAT
Very Small Aperture Satellites
Private WANs

Satellite Orbits

Geosynchronous Orbit (GEO): 36,000 km above Earth, includes commercial and military communications satellites, satellites providing early warning of ballistic missile launch. Medium Earth Orbit (MEO): from 5000 to 15000 km, they include navigation satellites (GPS, Galileo, Glonass). Low Earth Orbit (LEO): from 500 to 1000 km above Earth, includes military intelligence satellites, weather satellites.

Source: Federation of American Scientists [www.fas.org]

Satellite Orbits

GEO - Geostationary Orbit

In the equatorial plane Orbital Period = 23 h 56 m 4.091 s = 1 sidereal day*

Satellite appears to be stationary over any point on equator:

Earth Rotates at same speed as Satellite Radius of Orbit r = Orbital Height + Radius of Earth Avg. Radius of Earth = 6378.14 Km

3 Satellites can cover the earth (120 apart)

NGSO - Non Geostationary Orbits

Orbit should avoid Van Allen radiation belts:
Region of charged particles that can cause damage to satellite Occur at
~2000-4000 km and ~13000-25000 km

LEO - Low Earth Orbits

Circular or inclined orbit with < 1400 km altitude
Satellite travels across sky from horizon to horizon in 5 - 15 minutes => needs handoff Earth stations must track satellite or have Omni directional antennas Large constellation of satellites is needed for continuous communication (66 satellites needed to cover earth) Requires complex architecture Requires tracking at ground

HEO - Highly Elliptical Orbits

HEOs (i = 63.4) are suitable to provide coverage at high latitudes (including North Pole in the northern hemisphere) Depending on selected orbit (e.g. Molniya, Tundra, etc.) two or three satellites are sufficient for continuous time coverage of the service area. All traffic must be periodically transferred from the setting satellite to the rising satellite (Satellite Handover)

Satellite Orbits

Source: Union of Concerned Scientists [www.ucsusa.org]

Why Satellites remain in Orbits

Advantages of Satellite Communication

Can reach over large geographical area Flexible (if transparent transponders) Easy to install new circuits Circuit costs independent of distance Broadcast possibilities Temporary applications (restoration) Niche applications Mobile applications (especially "fill-in") Terrestrial network "by-pass" Provision of service to remote or underdeveloped areas User has control over own network 1-for-N multipoint standby possibilities

Disadvantages of Satellite Communication

Large up front capital costs (space segment and launch) Terrestrial break even distance expanding (now approx. size of Europe) Interference and propagation delay Congestion of frequencies and orbits

When to use Satellites

When the unique features of satellite communications make it attractive When the costs are lower than terrestrial routing When it is the only solution Examples:
Communications to ships and aircraft (especially safety communications) TV services - contribution links, direct to cable head, direct to home Data services - private networks Overload traffic Delaying terrestrial investments 1 for N diversity Special events

When to use Terrestrial

PSTN - satellite is becoming increasingly uneconomic for most trunk telephony routes but, there are still good reasons to use satellites for telephony such as: thin routes, diversity, very long distance traffic and remote locations. Land mobile/personal communications - in urban areas of developed countries new terrestrial infrastructure is likely to dominate (e.g. GSM, etc.) but, satellite can provide fill-in as terrestrial networks are implemented, also provide similar services in rural areas and underdeveloped countries

Frequency Bands Allocated to the FSS

Frequency bands are allocated to different services at World Radiocommunication Conferences (WRCs). Allocations are set out in Article S5 of the ITU Radio Regulations. It is important to note that (with a few exceptions) bands are generally allocated to more than one radio services. CONSTRAINTS
Bands have traditionally been divided into commercial" and "government/military" bands, although this is not reflected in the Radio Regulations and is becoming less clear-cut as "commercial" operators move to utilize "government" bands.

Earths atmosphere

Source: All about GPS [www.kowoma.de]

Atmospheric Losses
Different types of atmospheric losses can disturb radio wave transmission in satellite systems:
Atmospheric absorption Atmospheric attenuation Traveling ionospheric disturbances

Atmospheric Absorption
Energy absorption by atmospheric gases, which varies with the frequency of the radio waves. Two absorption peaks are observed (for 90 elevation angle):
22.3 GHz from resonance absorption in water vapour (H2O) 60 GHz from resonance absorption in oxygen (O2)

For other elevation angles:

[AA] = [AA]90 cosec

Source: Satellite Communications, Dennis Roddy, McGraw-Hill

Atmospheric Attenuation
Rain is the main cause of atmospheric attenuation (hail, ice and snow have little effect on attenuation because of their low water content). Total attenuation from rain can be determined by:
A = L [dB] where [dB/km] is called the specific attenuation, and can be calculated from specific attenuation coefficients in tabular form that can be found in a number of publications where L [km] is the effective path length of the signal through the rain; note that this differs from the geometric path length due to fluctuations in the rain density.

Traveling Ionospheric Disturbances

Traveling ionospheric disturbances are clouds of electrons in the ionosphere that provoke radio signal fluctuations which can only be determined on a statistical basis. The disturbances of major concern are:
Scintillation; Polarisation rotation.

Scintillations are variations in the amplitude, phase, polarisation, or angle of arrival of radio waves, caused by irregularities in the ionosphere which change over time. The main effect of scintillations is fading of the signal.

What is Polarisation?
Polarisation is the property of electromagnetic waves that describes the direction of the transverse electric field. Since electromagnetic waves consist of an electric and a magnetic field vibrating at right angles to each other. it is necessary to adopt a convention to determine the polarisation of the signal. Conventionally, the magnetic field is ignored and the plane of the electric field is used.

Types of Polarisation
Linear Polarisation (horizontal or vertical):
the two orthogonal components of the electric field are in phase; The direction of the line in the plane depends on the relative amplitudes of the two components.

Circular Polarisation:
The two components are exactly 90 out of phase and have exactly the same amplitude.

Elliptical Polarisation:
All other cases.
Linear Polarisation Circular Polarisation Elliptical Polarisation

Satellite Communications
Alternating vertical and horizontal polarisation is widely used on satellite communications This reduces interference between programs on the same frequency band transmitted from adjacent satellites (One uses vertical, the next horizontal, and so on) Allows for reduced angular separation between the satellites.

Information Resources for Telecommunication Professionals [www.mlesat.com]