Homeostasis

M. Djauhari Widjajakusumah
Departmen Fisiologi Fakultas Kedokteran Universitas Indonesia

Cell, The Basic Unit of Life

o The basic unit of both structure and function in living being. o The smallest unit capable of carrying out processes associated with life.

o Each type of cell is specially adapted to perform one particular function.

o All cells have certain basic characteristics that are alike. Oxygen combines with macronutrients to release energy Cells deliver end-products of the chemical reactions into the interstitial fluids. Almost all cells have the ability to reproduce. Cells consist of chemical components (atoms: oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen molecules: protein, carbohydrate, fat, nucleic acids [DNA genetic materials]) o Organ is an aggregate of many different cells held together by Guyton and Hall: Textbook of Medical Physiology 11th ed. 2006 intercellular supporting structures.

Basic Cell Functions Essential for Survival of the Cell

1. Obtaining nutrients and oxygen from the surrounding environment 2. Utilizing nutrients (carbohydrate, fat, protein) and oxygen by way of performing various chemical reactions to provide energy for the cells. 3. Eliminating CO2 and other by products, wastes produced during chemical reactions, to the surrounding of the cells 4. Synthesizing protein & other components cellular structure, growth, carrying out cell functions 5. Controlling materials exchange between the cell and its surrounding environment

6. Moving materials from one part of the cell to another in carrying out cellular activities
7. Being sensitive and responsive to changes in the surrounding environment

Homeostasis

Homeo = same; statis = constant The maintenance of nearly constant conditions in the internal environment (milieu interieur) An active process through which the constancy of components of the immediate environment of the cell is maintained within the physiological range within which life can survive Not an unchanging or static state; it is a dynamic state, it changes according to the changing needs of the body short term or long term adaptations Homeodynamic would be the better word A dynamic steady state in the internal environment

Homeostasis

The activities of cells, tissues, and organs must be regulated and integrated with each other in such a way that any change in the extracellular fluid initiates a reaction to minimize the change. Homeostasis denotes the relatively stable conditions of the internal environment that result from these compensating regulatory responses performed by homeostatic control systems.

Vander et al.: Human Physiology: The Mechanism of Body Function, Eighth Edition, The McGrawHill Companies, 2001

Homeostasis
Cell survival depends on maintenance of a relative stable internal fluid environment (ECF) with which cells directly make self-sustaining exchanges The cells continue to live and function properly providing the normal condition of the internal environment is maintained Homeostasis is essential for each cells survival, each cell benefits from homeostasis. Each cell contributes its share towards the maintenance of homeostasis.

Homeostasis
The body systems functions are to maintain homeostasis; and depend on the specialized activities of the cells The internal environment factors that must be homeostatically maintained are: concentration of nutrient molecules, O2 and CO2, waste products, water, salt, and other electrolytes pH temperature volume and pressure Each functional structure / organ provides its share in the maintenance of homeostatic conditions in the internal environment (ECS): Lungs provide O2 to replenish O2 being used by the cells Kidneys maintain constant ion concentrations GI system provides nutrients

Body Fluids
o 56-60% of the adult human being is fluid. o 2/3 of this fluid is the intracellular fluid (40% bw) 1/3 of this fluid is the extracellular fluid (20% bw) o Claude Bernard (the 19th century French physiologist): Extracellular fluid is the internal environment of the body (millieu interieur) that contains - among others - the ions and nutrients needed by the cells for the maintenance of the cellular life homeostasis

Body fluid compartments. Arrows represent fluid movement. Transcellular fluids, which constitute a very small percentage of total body fluids, are not shown.
William F. Ganong: Review of Medical Physiology 22nd ed, 2005

Extracellular Fluid (ECF)

o Constantly moves throughout the body o Rapidly transported in the circulating blood (intravascular fluid) o Fluid exchange between the intravascular and the tissue (interstitial) fluids by way of diffusion through the capillary walls o ECF contents: Na, K, Ca, Cl, and bicarbonate ions Nutrients (O2, glucose, fatty acids, amino acids) CO2, transported from the cells to the lungs Other cellular products

Constituents and Physical Characteristics of the ECF

Guyton and Hall: Textbook of Medical Physiology 11th ed. 2006

Regulation of Body Functions The Nervous System

Provides rapid coordinations of internal organ system, and response to the external environment to maintain the homeostatic condition.

Interactions between the nervous and endocrine controlling systems are precisely adjusted by complex mechanism the neuroendocrine regulation.

Regulation of Body Functions The Nervous System

Composed of three major parts

o The sensory input portion Sensory receptors detect the state of the body or the state of the surroundings
o The central nervous system (CNS)/integrative portion Composed of the brain, the brain stem, and the spinal cord. The brain stores information, generate thoughts, determines reactions in response to the sensory inputs.

o The motor output portion Transmits appropriate signals from CNS to carry out appropriate responses

Vander et al.: Human Physiology: The Mechanism of Body Function, Eighth Edition The McGrawHill Companies, 2001

Regulation of Body Functions The Endocrine System

Hormones are transported in the ECF to all parts of the body to help regulate cellular functions

o o

Complements the nervous system

The nervous system regulates mainly the muscular and secretory activities, the hormonal system regulates mainly the metabolic functions.

The Control System of The Body

Proportional control system: Adjusting and reacting (giving response) to changes in the environment (stimuli) in proportion to the degree of fluctuation of the controlled variables. A complex and integrated system. Simple proportional system still has minor errors that can be corrected by an integral control system.

The Control System of The Body

Intracellular control system

o

Genetic control system, controls intracellular functions

Organ level control system (intrinsic /local control system)

o

Controls the functions of parts of the organ

Inter organ control system (extrinsic control system)

o

Operates throughout the entire body to control the interrelationships among organs

The respiratory system regulates the concentration of CO2, in association with the nervous system The liver and pancreas regulate the concentration of blood glucose

Characteristics of Control System Feedback mechanisms

Feedback system Feedback: responses made after a change has been detected Feedback system generally operate on the principle of negative feed back: Negative feedback system Integrative system that measures and compares the input and output, and gives response to any discrepancy to maintain a biological system in a steady state Negative feedback mechanism A series of changes that return the controlled variable toward a certain mean value, thus maintaining homeostasis Most control systems of the body act by a process of negative feedback

Negative-feedback system
An increase or decrease in the variable being regulated brings about responses that tend to move the variable in the direction opposite (negative to) the direction of the original change. The response returns the controlled variable back to its normal value, the response is against the change

the decrease in body temperature leads to responses that tend to increase the body temperature that is, move it toward its original value.
the increase in ECF concentration of C02 (initiating stimulus) leads to responses that tend to increase pulmonary ventilation lungs expire greater amounts of CO2 from the body decreases back ECF [C02] (negative response to the initiating stimulus)

Elaine N. Marieb, Katja Hoehn: Human Anatomy & Physiology 7th ed, 2006

Elaine N. Marieb, Katja Hoehn: Human Anatomy & Physiology 7th ed, 2006

Vander et al.: Human Physiology: The Mechanism of Body Function, Eighth Edition, The McGrawHill Companies, 2001

Vander et al.: Human Physiology: The Mechanism of Body Function, Eighth Edition,

The homeostatic control system maintains a relatively constant body temperature when room temperature decreases. The begin sign indicates where to start. The arrows next to each term within the boxes denote increases or decreases.

The arrows connecting any two boxes in the figure denote cause and effect; that is, an arrow can be read as causes or leads to.
In general, one should add the words tends to in thinking about these causeand-effect relationships. For example, decreased room temperature tends to cause an increase in heat loss from the body, and curling up tends to cause a decrease in heat loss from the body. Qualifying the relationship in this way is necessary because variables like heat production and heat loss are under the influence of many factors, some of which oppose each other.
Vander et al.: Human Physiology: The Mechanism of Body Function, Eighth Edition, The McGrawHill Companies, 2001

Vander et al.: Human Physiology: The Mechanism of Body Function, Eighth Edition, The McGrawHill Companies, 2001

Ganongs Review of Medical Physiology 23rd ed, 2009

Characteristics of Control System Feedback mechanisms

Positive Feedback:

An initial disturbance in a system sets off a train of events that increase the disturbance even further. Positive feedback does not favor stability and often abruptly displaces a system away from its normal set point. The greater the initiating stimulus, the more the controlling system is activated. Does not happen very often in biological system, does not lead to stability, but to instability and often to death. Known as vicious circle A mild degree of positive feedback can be overcome by negative feedback control vicious circle fails to develop In certain circumstances, positive feedback occurs to be useful Childbirth Descending of the baby cervix stretched signals from the cervix uterine contractions more stretched cervix more intense signals more powerful uterine contractions birth of the baby

Characteristics of Control System Feedback mechanisms

Positive Feedback:
Estrogens Increased oxytocin receptors Uterine distention

Prostaglandin

Uterine contractions

Dilatation of cervix and distention of vagina

Stimuli from cervix and vagina

Increased secretion of oxytocin

Vicious cycle
If one or more functional systems lose their ability to function properly the optimal condition of the internal environment can not be maintained

drives the body away from normal homeostasis

vicious cycle homeostatic failure cells of the body suffer pathophysiologic condition may lead to death.

Disruption of Homeostatic condition

One or more functional systems lose their ability to contribute their share of function cells of the body suffer. Extreme dysfunction leads to death, whereas moderate dysfunction leads to sickness.

Guyton and Hall: Textbook of Medical Physiology 11th ed. 2006

Vander et al.: Human Physiology: The Mechanism of Body Function, Eighth Edition, The McGrawHill Companies, 2001

Adaptation
Living systems are constantly adjusting and reacting (responses) to changes (stimuli ) in the environment Immediate response: Painful stimulus increased blood pressure Exercise increased blood pressure immediate adaptation to supply the exercising muscles ( the new circumstances) with blood, limited by muscle soreness and fatigue Response to long-lasting environment changes Basic biochemistry changes in trained muscles: o Increased number of open capillaries supplying the muscle o Increased blood supply, contractile proteins, and oxygen-storing protein (myoglobin) Adaptation to the new environment, muscle hypertrophy,

CELLULAR RESPONSES TO STRESS AND NOXIOUS STIMULI

o Constantly adjusting their structure and function to accommodate changing demands and extracellular stresses. o Maintain their intracellular milieu within a fairly narrow range of physiologic parameters (maintain normal homeostasis). o Physiologic stresses or pathologic stimuli cells adaptation new steady state preserving viability and function. o The cell principal adaptive responses are hypertrophy, hyperplasia, atrophy, and metaplasia. o If the adaptive capability is exceeded or if the external stress is inherently harmful, cell injury develops. o Within certain limits injury is reversible, and cells return to a stable baseline o Severe or persistent stress results in irreversible injury and death of the affected cells. o Cell death results from diverse causes, including ischemia (lack of blood flow), infections, toxins, and immune reactions.

Figure 1-1 Stages in the cellular response to stress and injurious stimuli.

Figure 1-2 The relationship between normal, adapted, reversibly injured, and dead myocardial cells. The cellular adaptation depicted here is hypertrophy, the type of reversible injury is ischemia, and the irreversible injury is ischemic coagulative necrosis.

Patients clinical condition

Clinical signs & symptoms

History & prognosis of the disease

Histopathological changes

Abnormal function (Pathophysiology) Pathogenesis

Pathogenesis

(Pathology Anatomy) (Clinical Pathology)

Feedback mechanism failure

Trauma, stimuli

Normal Structure (Anatomy, Histology)

Normal Function Feedback mechanism

Trauma, stimuli

Short Term Adaptation Long Term Adaptation Homeostasis

Physiology Biochemistry

Human Physiology

o Concerns with the specific characteristics and mechanisms of the human body that make it a living being
o Encompasses all aspects of human biology, it is the study of the function of human body which is inseparable from its structure

Guyton and Hall: Textbook of Medical Physiology 11th ed. 2006

Thank you