Lecture 8

Create time for your writing

Writing requires sustained concentration, so create time for writing

Write when your mind is fresh Find a regular writing place

One cannot write in unfamiliar surroundings. Find a place where you cannot be interrupted, so remove all distractions including TV, magazines, computer games, etc.

Set goals and achieve them Use word processing Generate a plan for the report Finish each writing session on a high point
So that it is easy to restart next time Ask friends to read to point out difficult things that are not easy to understand, along with all omissions, spelling, punctuations and grammatical errors

Get friends to read and comment on your work

Suggested structure
Abstract Introduction Literature review Method Results Conclusions References Appendices

The abstract should contain four short paragraphs that answer the following questions:
1. What were my research questions and why were they important? 2. How did I go about answering the research questions? 3. What did I find out in response to these questions? 4. What conclusions can be drawn?

Smith (1991) lists five principles for write a good abstract:

1. It should be short; to a maximum of two sides of A4 or may range between 300 500 words in case of a research report; a quarter to one-third of a page in case of a technical research article for a journal 2. It must be self-contained, meaning that it summarize the complete content of the report 3. It must satisfy the readers needs; reader must be told about problem (or central theme) addressed, the method adopted to pursue the issue, and results found and conclusions drawn 4. It must convey the same emphasis as the report; the reader should get an accurate impression of the reports contents 5. It must be objective, precise, and easy to read; stick what is in the report; ensure to convey the contents of the report in as clear and brief as possible

 The introduction should give the reader a clear idea about the central issue of concern, and why it was thought worth studying. It should include full statement of research questions and research objectives. If research is about some organization, introduction should then also include some details of the organization, including its history, size, product and services. Introduction should also include a route map to guide the reader through rest of the report including brief on content of each chapter.

The contents and organization of literature review should be such that: It helps to set your study in its wider context; it helps to explain how your study supplements the existing work; it helps to develop hypotheses; it helps to identify and finalize your research methodology; and It helps to provide materials to give references in introduction, as well as, in discussion where references are needed to quote in support of or against the researchers findings.

This should be a complete section/chapter - giving readers complete info - to make an estimate of the reliability and validity of methods used

It should include information on four major points, namely: a. research setting, b. research participants, c. research materials and d. procedures
a. Research setting:
1. 2. 3. What was the research setting? Why did you choose the particular setting? Its Justification? What ethical issues did come out, and how were these addressed?

b. Participants/sampling: 1. How many? Sample size? 2. How were they selected? Sampling techniques? 3. What were their characteristics? 4. How were refusals/non-response handled? c. Materials:
1. What tests/scales/interview or observation schedules/ questionnaires were used? How were purpose-made instruments developed? How were the resulting data analysed?

2. 3.

d. Procedures
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What were the characteristics of the interviewers and observers, and how were they trained? How valid and reliable do you think the procedure were? What instructions were given to participants? How many interviews/observations/questionnaires were there; how long did they last; where did they take place? When was the research carried out?

Two important points should be kept in mind while writing results:

The first purpose of this section/chapter is to present the facts discovered. So you will narrate facts only, and will not include your opinions on the facts in this chapter/section; you will do that in next section on conclusions. The second purpose is to communicate the answers to your research questions in a clear, logical and easily understood manner. An easy way to do so is: return to your research objectives and let these dictate the order in which you present your findings Or alternatively You may report your results thematically, in descending order of importance.

Saunders et al. (2009)

* This section/chapter provides the second major opportunity to researcher to shine, and demonstrate the real originality of thought; he gets the first opportunity to shine and demonstrate real opportunity of thought when he chooses the research topic. * The difference between the Findings chapter and Conclusion chapter is that you make judgements in the latter while you report facts in the former. * For each finding, there should be at least one conclusion. Answering the research questions, meeting the objectives, and supporting or otherwise the research hypothesis is the main purpose of the conclusion chapter.

* There are practical implications of the findings; those

may form the part of conclusion chapter. Even if you do not specify any practical implications, you may comment on what your research implies for any future research. The purpose of the conclusion: To answer the research question(s) To meet the research objectives To consider the findings To present any contributions to the topic displayed in the literature To reflect on any implications for future research

 Start your References section at the beginning of the writing process, and add to it as you go along; it would become a very tedious, boring and timeconsuming task if you left it until you have completed the main body of test. Cite all sources referred to in the text. Check all citations to prevent plagiarism.

 Appendices should be kept to the minimum.

If material is essential to know, then it should be included in the main body of the report. If it is interesting to know, then it should be included as appendix. Include blank copies of questionnaire, interview or observation schedules as appendices.

PREPARING DATA FOR QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS

ENTERING DATA, TAKING RELIABILITY TEST AND GENERATING VARIBLES: A RECALL

&
CHECKING FOR OUTLIERS

SPSS Exercise (a)

We have already gone through the SPSS exercise for entering data collected through Likert-scale questionnaire, checking this data for reliability, and generating various variables of our interest (like JS, DJ, PJ, IJ and InJ). Today, we are going to check whether there are certain observations/data on the newly generated variables, which fall in to the category of outliers.

SPSS Exercise (b) What is an outlier?

An outlying observation, or outlier, is an observation that is much different (either very small or very large) in relation to the observations in the sample. More precisely, an outlier is an observation from a different population to that generating the remaining sample observations. The inclusion or exclusion of such an observation, especially if the sample size is small, can substantially alter the results of regression analysis.
(Gujarati, 2007; p.399)

SPSS Exercise (c)

Lets use the following SPSS commands, which may help us to identify certain outliers in our data set. ANALYZE.....DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS.....EXPLORE ......Take JB to right-hand Dependent List box and go to Statistics, and click.....STATISTIC.....OUTLIER...... CONTINUE......PLOT.....cllick on.....Stem & Leaf, Histogram and Normalty Plot with test.......CONTINUE.....(on-display, pick on).....BOTH....OK. Evaluate the output in light of my attached notes on The outlier: exploring the data