Chapter 5: Consumer Motivation

Consumer Behavior: A Framework

John C. Mowen Michael S. Minor

Ten Key Concepts

Concept of Motivation Consumer needs Operant conditioning Classical conditioning Vicarious learning

Opponent-process theory Optimum-stimulation level theory Reactance theory Perceived risk Consumer attributions

What is Motivation?

Motivation refers to an activated state within a person that leads to goaldirected behavior.

It consists of the drives, urges, wishes, or desires that initiate the sequence of events leading to a behavior.

Motivation begins with the presence of a stimulus that spurs the recognition of a need. Need recognition occurs when a perceived discrepancy exists between an actual and a desired state of being

Needs can be either innate or learned. Needs are never fully satisfied. Feelings and emotions (I.e., affect) accompany needs

Expressive needs involve desires by consumers to fulfill social and/or aesthetic requirements. Utilitarian needs involve desires by consumers to solve basic problems (e.g. filling a cars gas tank).

The Structure of Emotions

Ten Fundamental Emotions People Experience: Disgust Interest Joy Surprise Sadness Anger Fear Contempt Shame Guilt

Some General Theories of Motivation

Maslow hierarchy: physical, safety, belongingness, ego, and self-actualiation McClellands Theory of Learned Needs

Achievement motivation is seeking to get ahead, to strive for success, and to take responsibility for solving problems. Need for affiliation motivates people to make friends, to become members of groups, and to associate with others. Need for power refers to the desire to obtain and exercise control over others. Need for uniqueness refers to desires to perceive ourselves as original and different.

Classical Conditioning

A neutral stimulus, such as a brand name, is paired with a stimulus that elicits a response. Through a repetition of the pairing, the neutral stimulus takes on the ability to elicit the response.

The conditioned stimulus (CS) is a previously neutral stimulus which is repeatedly paired with the eliciting stimulus. The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is an eliciting stimulus. The conditioned response (CR) is the response elicited by the CS. The unconditioned response (UCR) is the reflexive response elicited by the unconditioned stimulus.

Classical Conditioning Relations

Unconditioned/Secondary Stimulus Unconditioned Response Flag Pairing Emotions

Political candidate Conditioned Stimulus

Emotions Conditioned Response

Requirements for Effective Conditioning

The neutral stimulus should precede in time the appearance of the unconditioned stimulus. The product is paired consistently with the unconditioned stimulus. Both the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus are highly salient to the consumer.

Applications of Classical Conditioning

Applications: communications--advertising, public relations, personal selling. Goal: identify powerful positive stimulus and associate brand with it. Examples of powerful, emotion causing stimuli: beautiful, sexy people patriotic themes, religious symbols Music, beautiful scenes Also, negative stimuli can be associated with competitors. Credit card insignia may elicit spending responses

Operant Conditioning . . .
. . . is the process in which the frequency of occurrence of a bit of behavior is modified by the consequences of the behavior.

If positively reinforced, the likelihood of the behavior being repeated increases. If punished, the likelihood of the behavior being repeated decreases.

Reinforcement & Influencing Behavior

A reinforcer is anything that occurs after a behavior and changes the likelihood that it will be emitted again.

Positive reinforcers are positive rewards that follow immediately after a behavior occurs. Negative reinforcers are the removal of an aversive stimulus.

Secondary reinforcers . . .
. . . are a previously neutral stimulus that acquires reinforcing properties through its association with a primary reinforcer.

Over a period of time, previously neutral stimuli can become secondary reinforcers. In marketing, most reinforcers are secondary (e.g. a product performing well, a reduction in price)

A Punisher . . .
. . . is any stimulus whose presence after a behavior decreases the likelihood of the behavior reoccurring.

Extinction & Eliminating Behaviors

Once an operant response is conditioned, it will persist as long as it is periodically reinforced.

Extinction is the disappearance of a response due to lack of reinforcement.

Schedules of Reinforcement . . .
. . . determine if a behavior is reinforced after a certain number of repetitions or after a certain length of time has passed. Example. Slot machines use a variable schedule based upon number of pulls of handle.

Discriminative Stimuli . . .
. . . are those stimuli that occur in the presence of a reinforcer and do not occur in its absence.
Example: point of purchase display is a discriminative stimulus.

Stimulus Discrimination and Generalization

Stimulus discrimination occurs when an organism behaves differently depending on the presence of one of two stimuli. Goal of differentiation is to cause stimulus discrimination. Stimulus generalization occurs when an organism reacts similarly to two or more distinct stimuli. Goal of knock-off brands is to use stimulus generalization.

Shaping Consumer Responses . . .

. . . is creating totally new operant behaviors by selectively reinforcing behaviors that successively approximate the desired instrumental response.

Vicarious Learning . . .

. . . is the phenomenon where people observe the actions of others to develop patterns of behavior.

Three important ideas:

People are viewed as symbolic beings who foresee the probable consequences of their behavior. People learn by watching the actions of others and the consequences of these actions (i.e. vicarious learning). People have the ability to regulate their own behavior.

Factors Increasing a Models Effectiveness

The model is physically attractive. The model is credible. The model is successful. The model is similar to the observer. The model is shown overcoming difficulties and then succeeding.

Three Major Uses of SocialLearning Theory

A models actions can be used to create entirely new types of behaviors A model can be used to decrease the likelihood that an undesired behavior will occur The model can be used to facilitate the occurrence of a previously learned behavior

Midrange Theories of Motivation

Opponent-Process Theory Optimum Stimulation Levels The Desire to Maintain Behavioral Freedom The Motivation to Avoid Risk The Motivation to Attribute Causality

Opponent-Process Theory
. . . explains that two things occur when a person receives a stimulus that elicits an immediate positive or negative emotional reaction: The immediate positive or negative emotional reaction is felt. A second emotional reaction occurs that has a feeling opposite to that initially experienced. The combination of the two emotional reactions results in the overall feeling experienced by the consumer. Explains addictive behaviors Explains primingthe effects of a small exposure to a stimulus.

Optimum Stimulation Level

. . . is a persons preferred amount of physiological activation or arousal.

Activation may vary from very low levels (e.g. sleep) to very high levels (e.g. severe panic). Individuals are motivated to maintain an optimum level of stimulation and will take action to correct the level when it becomes to high or too low. Accounts for high vs. low sensation seeking people. Accounts for variety seeking Accounts for hedonic consumptionI.e., the need of people to create fantasies, gain feelings through the senses, and obtain emotional arousal.

The Desire to Maintain Behavioral Freedom

Psychological reactance is the motivational state resulting from the response to threats to behavioral freedom.

Two types of threats can lead to reactance:

Social threats involve external pressure from other people to induce a consumer to do something Impersonal threats are barriers that restrict the ability to buy a particular product or service

Frequent in marketing: e.g., pushy salesperson Scarcity effects: scarce products are valued more. Limited time offer, limited supply.

The Motivation to Avoid Risk

Perceived risk is a consumers perception of the overall negativity of a course of action based upon as assessment of the possible negative outcomes and of the likelihood that these outcomes will occur. Perceived risk consists of two major concepts - the negative outcomes of a decision and the probability these outcomes will occur.

7 Types of Consumer Risks.

Financial Performance Physical Psychological Social Time Opportunity Loss

Factors Influencing Risk Perception

Characteristics of the persone.g., need for stimulation Nature of the task

Voluntary risks are perceived as less risky than involuntary tasks.

Characteristics of the productprice Salience of negative outcomes

Six risk-reduction strategies

Be brand loyal and consistently purchase the same brand. Buy through brand image and purchase a quality national brand. Buy through store image from a retailer that you trust.

Seek out information in order to make a well informed decision. Buy the most expensive brand, which is likely to have high quality. Buy the least expensive brand in order to reduce financial risk.

The Motivation to Attribute Causality

Attribution theory describes the processes through which people make determinations of the causality of action. Internal attribution is when a consumer decides that an endorser recommended the product because he or she actually liked the product. External attribution is when a consumer decides that an endorser recommended the product because he or she was paid for endorsing it.

Augmentation-Discounting Model

Discounting occurs if external pressures exist that could provoke someone to act in a particular way - so actions would be expected given the circumstances. The augmenting principle states that when a person moves against the forces of the environment to do something unexpected, the belief that the action represents the persons actual opinions, feelings, and desires is increased. Fundamental Attribution error: One consistent finding is that people are biased to make internal attributions to others.

Applications of attribution theory

endorsers: seek to get consumers to perceive internal motives for making endorsement. satisfaction: seek to get consumers to perceive external reasons for product problem. sales promotion: find ways to avoid consumers attributing the cause of the purchase to the sale rather than to the excellence of the product.

Managerial Applications of Motivation

Positioning/differentiation: use discriminative stimuli distinguish one brand from another. Environmental analysis: identify the reinforcers and punishers that impact consumers; identify factors that influence risk perception. Market research: measure motivational needs (e.g., McClellands needs and need for arousal), measure risk perception. Marketing mix: use motivational needs to design products (e.g., safe cars) and to develop promotional strategy that meets needs. Develop messages to influence consumer attributions. Use in-store promotions to prime consumers. Segmentation: Segment market based upon motivational needs.