FUELS AND

COMBUSTION

Atomic Mass
Molecular Mass
1 kmol + 1kmol 1 kmol
1 kmol + 0.5kmol 1 kmol
1 kmol + 1kmol 1 kmol
Air 100 m
3
100kg
Example
A sample of coal has 16% ash and 4%
moisture. The analysis on dry and ash
free basis is C = 0.88, H=0.06. O=0.04,
N=0.01, S=0.01. Determine the minimum
amount of air needed to burn 3 kg of
coal. Find the composition of product
gas.


Element DAF Actual =DAF*0.8
C : 0.88 : 0.704
H : 0.06 : 0.048
O : 0.04 : 0.032
S : 0.01 : 0.008
N : 0.01 : 0.008

Ash : 0.160
M : 0.040

Total : 1.000
(A/F)
s
= 9.73 kg/kg

Air required for 3 kg of fuel = 29.18kg
mass of products / kg of fuel
CO2 = 0.704 *(11/3) = 2.5813 kg (24.44%)

H2O = 0.048*9 + 0.04 = 0.472 kg (4.47 %)

SO2 = 0.008*2 = 0.016 kg (0.15 %)

N2 = 0.008+9.73*0.77 = 7.500 kg (71.02%)
Total = 10.56 kg

mass


mass = number of moles * Molecular Mass

m= nM

n = m/M n is proportional to Volume
Volume of products / kg of fuel
CO2 = 2.5813/44 =0.0586 kmol (16.60%)

H2O = 0.472/18 =0.026 kmol (07.42%)

SO2 = 0.01/64 =0.00025 kmol (0.07%)

N2 = 7.500/28 = 0.267kmol (75.88%)
TOTAL 0.35296 kmol 100.00%

Volumetric (Volume based)
Analysis
CO2 = 2.5813/44 =0.0586 kmol (16.71%)

H2O = 0.432/18 =0.024 kmol (6.8571%)

SO2 = 0.01/64 =0.00025 kmol (0.0714%)

N2 = 7.500/28 = 0.267kmol (76.457%)
TOTAL 0.35065 kmol 100%

Equivalence Ratio (or)
Relative Fuel to Air Ratio
mixtures rich for 1
mixtures tric Stoichiome for 1
mixtures lean for 1
) (
) (
>
=
<
=
|
|
|
|
s
a
A F
A F

Chemical Reaction
Equations for
Stoichiometric combustion
(OR)
Theoretical Combustion
(OR)
Ideal Combustion
Example
Calculate the theoretical A/F for burning
gasoline in an engine if it is assumed that
the chemical formula of the gasoline is
C
8
H
18
.

Combustion with oxygen
C
8
H
18
+ O
2
= CO
2
+ H
2
O (unbalanced)
C
8
H
18
+ 12.5O
2
= 8CO
2
+ 9H
2
O (balanced)

Combustion with Air
n
N2
/ n
O2
= 79/21 = 3.7619

C
8
H
18
+ 12.5 O
2
+ (12.5*3.7619) N
2

= 8CO
2
+ 9H
2
O + (12.5*3.7619) N
2

C
8
H
18
+ 12.5 O
2
+ 47.023 N
2

= 8CO
2
+ 9H
2
O + 47.023 N
2

mass of fuel = 8*12 +18*1 = 114 kg
mass of air = 12.5*32 + 47.0237*28
= 1716.6 kg

(A/F)
s
= 15.05 kg/kg
Gravimetric Compositions
CO2 : 19.22%

H2O : 8.85 %

N2 : 71.92%
Volumetric Compositions
Total Volume = 64.02 kmol

CO2 : 12.49%

H2O : 14.057%

N2 : 73.44%
A fuel has the following gravimetric
composition
Hexane (C
6
H
14
) 40%
Octane (C
8
H
18
) 30%
Cyclohexane (C
6
H
12
) 25%
Benzene (C
6
H
6
) 05%

Determine the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio.

example
Molecular mass of
Hexane (C
6
H
14
) 86 kg/kmol
Octane (C
8
H
18
) 114
Cyclohexane (C
6
H
12
) 84
Benzene (C
6
H
6
) 78

n = m/M
Molar volume of 100 kg of fuel
Hexane (C
6
H
14
) 0.4651 kmol
Octane (C
8
H
18
) 0.2631
Cyclohexane (C
6
H
12
) 0.2976
Benzene (C
6
H
6
) 0.0641

0.465(C
6
H
14
)+0.2631(C
8
H
18
)+0.2976(C
6
H
12
)+0.064(C
6
H
6
) + a O
2
+3.76a N
2
= bCO
2
+ d H
2
O + e N
2

C : 0.465*6 +0.2631*8 + 0.2976*6+0.064*6 = b
b = 7.064
H : 0.465*14 +0.2631*18 + 0.2976*12+0.064*6 = 2d
d = 7.6029
O : 2a = 2b + d a = 10.8683

N : 3.76*2*a = 2e e = 40.86

Chemical Reaction for 100 kg of
fuel
0.465(C
6
H
14
)+0.2631(C
8
H
18
)+0.2976(C
6
H
12
)+0.06
4(C
6
H
6
) + 10.8683 O
2
+ 40.86 N
2
= 7.064CO
2
+ 7.6029 H
2
O + 40.86 N
2

mass of air = 1491.86 kg
mass of fuel = 100 kg

(A/F)
s
= 14.9186 kg/kg
Chemical Reaction for 100 kg of
fuel
Excess Air combustion
Need for Excess Air
Example
Octane is burnt with 30% excess air.
Calculate the amount of air needed and
the volumetric analysis of resultant dry
flue gases
Stoichiometric Combustion with
oxygen
C
8
H
18
+ O
2
= CO
2
+ H
2
O
C
8
H
18
+ 12.5 O
2
= 8CO
2
+ 9H
2
O
Stoichiometric Combustion with Air
n
N2
/ n
O2
= 79/21 = 3.7619

C
8
H
18
+ 12.5 O
2
+ (12.5*3.7619) N
2

8CO
2
+ 9H
2
O + (12.5*3.7619) N
2

C
8
H
18
+ 12.5 O
2
+ 47.023 N
2

8CO
2
+ 9H
2
O + 47.023 N
2

mass of fuel = 8*12 +18*1 = 114 kg
mass of air = 12.5*32 + 47.0237*28
= 1716.6 kg

(A/F)
s
= 15.05 kg/kg
Combustion with Excess Air

C
8
H
18
+ (1.3) 12.5 O
2
+ (1.3) (47.0237)N
2

aCO
2
+ bH
2
O + d N
2
+ eO
2
.


C : 8=a
H : 18=2b
N : (1.3)(47.0237)(2)=2d
O : (1.3)(12.5)(2)=2e+2a+b
Combustion with Excess Air

C
8
H
18
+ (1.3) 12.5 O
2
+ (1.3) (47.0237)N
2

8CO
2
+ 9H
2
O + 61.13 N
2
+ 3.75O
2
.


C : a = 8
H : b = 9
N : d = 61.13
O : e = 3.75
Volumetric Compositions of total
Product gas
CO2 : 9.77 %

H2O : 10.99 %

N2 : 74.66 %

O2 : 4.50%
Volumetric Compositions of Dry
Product gas
CO2 : 10.97 %

N2 : 83.88 %

O2 : 5.146 %
Example
Octane is burnt with 30% insufficient air.
Calculate the amount of air needed and
the volumetric analysis of resultant dry
flue gases
Stoichiometric Combustion with
oxygen
C
8
H
18
+ O
2
= CO
2
+ H
2
O
C
8
H
18
+ 12.5 O
2
= 8CO
2
+ 9H
2
O
Stoichiometric Combustion with Air
n
N2
/ n
O2
= 79/21 = 3.7619

C
8
H
18
+ 12.5 O
2
+ (12.5*3.7619) N
2

8CO
2
+ 9H
2
O + (12.5*3.7619) N
2

C
8
H
18
+ 12.5 O
2
+ 47.023 N
2

8CO
2
+ 9H
2
O + 47.023 N
2

mass of fuel = 8*12 +18*1 = 114 kg
mass of air = 12.5*32 + 47.0237*28
= 1716.6 kg

(A/F)
s
= 15.05 kg/kg
Combustion with Insufficient Air

C
8
H
18
+ (0.7) 12.5 O
2
+ (0.7) (47.0237)N
2

aCO
2
+ bH
2
O + d N
2
+ eCO.


C : 8=a+e
H : 18=2b
N : (0.7)(47.0237)(2)=2d
O : (0.7)(12.5)(2)=2a+b+e
Combustion with insufficient Air

C
8
H
18
+ (1.3) 12.5 O
2
+ (1.3) (47.0237)N
2

8CO
2
+ 9H
2
O + 32.9166 N
2
+7.5O
2
.


C : a = 0.5
H : b = 9
N : d = 32.9166
O : e = 7.5
Volumetric Compositions of Total
Product gas
CO2 : 1.00%

H2O : 18.03%

N2 : 65.943%

CO : 15.025%
Volumetric Compositions of Dry
Product gas
CO2 : 1.22%

N2 : 80.44%

O2 : 18.33%
The fuel supplied to petrol engine is
assumed to have the composition C
2
H
16
.
Calculate (a) the stoichiometric air-fuel
ratio by mass, (b) the percentage
volumetric composition of the products of
combustion if 50% excess air is supplied
and combustion is complete. Assume air
contains 21% O
2
by volume
Example
Combustion with oxygen
C
2
H
16
+ O
2
= CO
2
+ H
2
O
C
2
H
16
+ 6 O
2
= 2CO
2
+ 8H
2
O
Combustion with Stoichiometric Air
n
N2
/ n
O2
= 79/21 = 3.7619


C
2
H
16
+ 6 O
2
+ 6*3.7619 N
2

= 2CO
2
+ 8H
2
O + 22.57 N
2

mass of Air = 823.68 kg
mass of fuel = 40 kg

(A/F)
s
= 20.592
(A/F)
a
= 1.5 (A/F)
s

= 30.89 kg/kg
Combustion with Excess Air

C
2
H
16
+ (1.5) 6 O
2
+ (1.5) 6*3.7619 N
2

= aCO
2
+ bH
2
O + d N
2
+ eO
2
.


C : a = 2
H : b = 8
N : d = 33.85
O : e = 3
Combustion with Excess Air

C
2
H
16
+ 9 O
2
+ 33.85 N
2

= 2CO
2
+ 8H
2
O + 33.85 N
2
+ 3O
2
.


mass of Air = kg
mass of fuel = kg

(A/F)
s
=

Example
Find the percentage volumetric composition
of the pre combustion and combustion
mixtures when heptane (C
7
H
16
) is burnt
with 20% excess air. Find also molecular
weight, the specific volume and the gas
constant at S.T.P of the post combustion
mixture. Assume that air contains 21%
oxygen and 79% Nitrogen by volume. The
volume of the kg mole at S.T.P. is 22.41
m3. [8].
In this case :

Std Temperature = 273 K
Stoichiometric Combustion
C
7
H
16
+aO
2
+3.76aN
2
bCO
2
+dH
2
O+eN
2
a = 11
b = 7
d = 8
e = 41.36

C
7
H
16
+ 11O
2
+ 41.36N
2

7CO
2
+8H
2
O+41.36N
2

(A/F)
s
= 15.10

(A/F)
a
= 1.2*15.10 = 18.10
C
7
H
16
+aO
2
+3.76aN
2

bCO
2
+dH
2
O+eO
2
+fN
2

(A/F)
a
=

(32a+3.76*28*a)/(7*12+16) = 18.10
a = 13.2
Actual Combustion
a = 13.200
b = 7.000
d = 8.000
e = 2.200
f = 49.632


Volumetric composition of Pre
Combustion Mixture
Total volume = 1+a +3.76a = 63.83 kmol

C7H16 1.56%
O2 20.67%
N2 77.77%
Post Combustion Mixture
Total volume= b+d+e+f = 66.83 kmol
CO2 10.49%
H2O 11.99%
O2 3.27%
N2 74.25%


M= 28.6
R=0.29

Given T = 273
v= 0.7826 m3/kg
Example
One kg of Octane burns in 12 kg of air. If
there is no free oxygen in the products,
calculate the percentage of CO
2
in the
dry flue gases
Stoichiometric Combustion with
oxygen
C
8
H
18
+ O
2
= CO
2
+ H
2
O
C
8
H
18
+ 12.5 O
2
= 8CO
2
+ 9H
2
O
Stoichiometric Combustion with Air
n
N2
/ n
O2
= 79/21 = 3.7619

C
8
H
18
+ 12.5 O
2
+ (12.5*3.7619) N
2

8CO
2
+ 9H
2
O + (12.5*3.7619) N
2

C
8
H
18
+ 12.5 O
2
+ 47.023 N
2

8CO
2
+ 9H
2
O + 47.023 N
2

mass of fuel = 8*12 +18*1 = 114 kg
mass of air = 12.5*32 + 47.0237*28
= 1716.6 kg

(A/F)
s
= 15.05 kg/kg
Combustion with Insufficient Air

C
8
H
18
+ a O
2
+ 3.76aN
2

bCO
2
+ dH
2
O + e N
2
+ f CO.

(A/F)
a
= (32a+3.76a*28)/(8*12 + 18) = 12
a = 9.968


Combustion with Insufficient Air

C
8
H
18
+ a O
2
+ 3.76aN
2

bCO
2
+ dH
2
O + e N
2
+ fCO.


C : 8 = b + f
H : 18 = 2d
N : 2*3.76a = 2e
O : 2a = 2b + d + f
Combustion with Insufficient Air
C
8
H
18
+ a O
2
+ 3.76aN
2

bCO
2
+ dH
2
O + e N
2
+ fCO.


C : 8 = b + f
H : 18 = 2d
N : 2*3.76a = 2e
O : 2a = 2b + d + f

b = 2.93
d = 9
e = 37.468
f = 5.07
Combustion with Insufficient Air



C
8
H
18
+ 9.968 O
2
+37.468N
2

2.93CO
2
+ 9 H
2
O + 37.468 N
2
+ 5.07 CO.



Combustion with Insufficient Air

C
8
H
18
+ 9.968 O
2
+37.468N
2

2.93CO
2
+ 9 H
2
O + 37.468 N
2
+ 5.07 CO.

Volume of CO2 = 2.93 kmol
volume of dry flue gases = 2.93+37.468+5.07 = 45.45 kmol


Volumetric % of CO2 = 2.93/45.45 = 6.45%



Example
A Diesel engine is supplied with fuel of
average composition of C
12
H
16
. The air
coefficient (actual A/F / Stoichiometric A/F)
during idling is 4.5 and during full load
running is 1.35. Determine stoichiometric
fuel air ratio. Also Determine the fuel air
ratio for each of the above cases and the
gravimetric analysis of the products of
combustion at full load.

Combustion with St. Air

C
12
H
16
+ 16O
2
+ 16*3.76 N
2

12 CO
2
+ 8 H
2
O + 16*3.76 N
2

mass of air = ma = 16*32 + 16*3.76*28 = 2196.4 kg

mass of fuel = mf = 12*12 + 16*1 = 160 kg

(A/F)
s
= 13.72


Idling
Idling
(A/F)a / (A/F)s = 4.5
(A/F)a =4.5*13.728 = 61.776

(F/A)
a
=0.016

% of excess air = (61.776 13.72)/13.72
= 350%

Combustion with 350% Excess Air
or
Combustion with 450% St. Air
C
12
H
16
+ (4.5)16O
2
+ (4.5) 16*3.76 N
2

a CO
2
+ b H
2
O + d N
2
+ eO
2

C
12
H
16
+ (4.5)16O
2
+ (4.5) 16*3.76 N
2

a CO
2
+ b H
2
O + d N
2
+ eO
2


C : 12 = a
H : 16 = 2b
N : 4.5*16*3.76*2 = 2d
O : 4.5*16*2 = 2a + b + 2e

a = 12
b = 8
d = 270.72
e = 56

Full O Load
Idling
(A/F)a / (A/F)s = 1.35
(A/F)a = 1.35 *13.728 = 18.53

(F/A)
a
=0.052
% of excess air = (18.53 13.72)/13.72
= 35%

Combustion with 35% Excess Air
or
Combustion with 135% St. Air
C
12
H
16
+ (1.35)16O
2
+ (1.35) 16*3.76 N
2

a CO
2
+ b H
2
O + d N
2
+ eO
2

C
12
H
16
+ (1.35)16O
2
+ (1.35) 16*3.76 N
2

a CO
2
+ b H
2
O + d N
2
+ eO
2


C : 12 = a
H : 16 = 2b
N : 1.35*16*3.76*2 = 2d
O : 1.35*16*2 = 2a + b + 2e

a = 12
b = 8
d = 81.22
e = 5.6

C
12
H
16
+ (1.35)16O
2
+ (1.35) 16*3.76 N
2

12 CO
2
+ 8 H
2
O + 81.22 N
2
+ 5.6O
2



Proportional
mass of CO
2
= 12*44 = 528 kg 16.89%
mass of H
2
O = 8*18 = 144 kg 4.60
mass of N
2
= 81.22*28 = 2275.182 kg 72.76%
mass of O
2
= 5.6*32 = 179.22 kg 5.73%
TOTAL =3125.36 kg 100%
Molar coeff Mass mass%
O2 21.59
Co2 12 528 16.89

H2o 8 144 4.6

O2 5.6 179.2 5.73

N2 81.216 2274.048 72.76
total 3125.248
P1 D98 6
Fuel for a SI engine contains 84% C and
16% H
2
. The F/A is 1:14. Assuming
complete combustion of H
2
and no
Carbon residue Calculate
(i) The mass of C burning to CO
(ii) The mass of C burning to CO
2
(iii) The mass of individual constituent gases
in the product
Example
Fuel for a SI engine contains 84% C and
16% H
2
. The F/A is 1:14. Assuming
complete combustion of H
2
and no
Carbon residue Calculate
(i) The mass of C burning to CO
(ii) The mass of C burning to CO
2
(iii) The mass of individual constituent gases
in the product
( )
16 7
8
2 7
2 H
c
H C H C
8 n
7 n
nM m
kg 16 H2 of mass
84Kg C of mass
=
=
=
=
=
=
( )
304 . 15
F
A
0 0 16 . 0 8 ) 84 . 0 (
3
8
23
100
F
A
S
8
O
H 8 C
3
8
23
100
F
A
s
s
s
=
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
|
.
|

\
|
(A/F)
s
=15.304 kg/kg

Given value < 15.304

Insufficient Air combustion
Assuming 100 kg of fuel,
m
c
= 84 kg 1

m
H2
= 16 kg 2

nM = m

n1 = 7 kmol
n2 = 8 kmol

7C + 8 H
2
+ a O
2
+ 3.76 a N
2
b CO
2
+ d H
2
O +e N
2
+ f CO


(A/F)a = [32 a + 3.76 a *28] /100 = 14

a = 10.19

7C + 8 H2 + a O2 + 3.76 a N2
b CO2 + d H2O +e N2 + f CO



C : 7 = b + f

H : 16 = 2d

O : 2a = 2b +d +f

N : 2*3.76a = 2e

7C + 8 H2 + a O2 + 3.76 a N2
b CO2 + d H2O +e N2 + f CO



a = 10.19 (from Actual A/F)
b = 5.39
d = 8
e = 38.31
f = 1.6


7C + 8 H2 + 10.19 O2 + 38.31 N2
5.39 CO2 + 8 H2O +38.31 N2 + 1.6 CO



Mass of C CO2 : [(Vco2)/(Vco2+Vco)]. m
c

: {(5.39)/(5.39+1.6)}*0.84
: 0.647 kg of C/kg of Fuel
Mass of C CO : {(Vco)/(Vco2+Vco)}. m
c

: {(1.6)/(5.39+1.6)}*0.84
: 0.192 kg of C/kg of Fuel

The mass of individual constituent
gases in the product
CO2 : b*44/100 : 2.3716 kg/kg
H2O : d*18/100 : 1.44 kg/kg
N2 : e*28/100 : 10.78
CO : f* 28/100 : 0.448

ComBUSTOR

1` kg of fuel
14 kg of fuel
15 kg of fuel
Alternative method
Based on 100 kmol of fuel
Vol of C = 7 kmol
Vol of H = 16 kmol



Vol % of C = 30.43%
Vol % of H = 69.57%


Stoichiometric Combustion
30.43C+69.56H+aO2+3.76aN2==>
bCO2+dH2O+eN2

a = 47.8225
b= 30.43
d= 34.785
e=179.81

(A/F)s= 15.1


Actual Combustion
30.43C+69.56H+aO2+3.76aN2==>
bCO2+dH2O+eN2+fCO

a = 44.26
b= 23.41
d= 34.785
f =6.965
e = 166.68



Mf mco = 0.1926
Mf mco2 = 0.6740
Mass of combustion gas
Mfg = 14.94 kg/kg
mco2 = 2.376 kgof co2/kg of F
Mh2o = 1.4
Mco = 0.4494
Mn2 = 10.73
`


HHV
kJ/Kg
LHV
C

33900 33900
CO

10170 10170
S

9295 9295
H2

144000 121500
LOSS DUE TO INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION
For 1 kg of Fuel
Heat loss due to incomplete combustion
0.1926 (33900-10170)
= 4570.39kJ
Total heat released
= 0.647*33900
+0.1926*10170+0.16*144000 = 46932.04
kJ

% of heat loss = 9.73%
???????????
Q = 51516 kJ/kg
Q = 49577

Loss = 3.76%
A/F from EG Composition
The Orsat analysis of the exhaust gases
from a diesel engine using a hydrocarbon
fuel is 7.4% CO
2
, 8.8O
2
, 1.1 CO. The
pressure of the exhaust gases is 10
Pa(bar). Calculate (a) A/F (b) the mass
analysis of fuel the wet product analysis.
Take molecular mass of air as 29. Air
contains 21% O
2
and 79% N
2
.
Example

aC+bH2+dO2+3.76dN2
7.4CO2+8.8O2+1.1CO+82.7N2+eH2O

C a = 7.4 + 1.1
H 2b = 2e
O 2d = 2*7.4 +2*8.8+1.1+e
N 2*3.76*d=2*82.7
Molar coeff Mass Mass%
C a= 8.5 Co2 325.6 10.36
H2 b=10.489 O2 281.6 8.96
O2 d=21.99 CO 30.8 0.98
N2 82.7 H2O 189 6.014
e = 10.48 N2 2315.6 73.68
Total 3142.6 100
mass of air = (21.99*32)+ (3.7621.99*28)=3019.28kg
m
c=
102 kg
m
H2
=20.96 kg
mf =122.96
(A/F)a =24.55

C 82.95%, H 17.05%

NOTE 1

( )
1705 691 05 . 17 91 . 6
52 . 8
2 91 . 6
2 H
c
H C H C H C
52 . 8 n
91 . 6 n
nM m
kg 17.05 H2 of mass
82.95Kg C of mass

=
=
=
=
=
5 . 15
F
A
S
8
O
H 8 C
3
8
23
100
F
A
s
s
=
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
|
.
|

\
|
Dew Point Temperature
Volumetric % of H2O = 9.5 % = 0.095

the partial pressure of H2O = 0.095*10 bar
= 0.95 bar

dew point temperature 98.2 deg C

Example
Octane (C8H18) is burnt with dry air. The
volumetric analysis of the dry products of
combustion is: CO2=10.02%;
CO = 0.88% and N2 = 83.48%;
O2=5.62% Determine : (a) Air Fuel ratio
(b) % of (theoretical) air used.
For 100 kmol of dry product gas
aC
8
H
18
+ bO
2
+ 3.76b N
2

10.02CO
2
+ 0.88 CO+5.62 O
2
+ 83.48N
2
+ dH
2
O

C a=1.36
O b = 22.2
H d = 12.26

N To check



(A/F)
a
= 19.61

(A/F)s = 15.05

% of actual air = 19.61/15.05*100
= 130.3%
Example
Coal having ultimate analysis of 0.65 C,
0.05H, 0.05 O, 0.05 H2O (rest ash) is
burnt with 10% excess air. The Orsat
analysis shows no CO 9% CO2, 10.5%
O2 and rest Nitrogen. Determine the air
fuel ratio and percent excess air
Enthalpy of Reaction
Generally, a chemical reaction is performed
in a steady flow device at a constant
pressure with no work transfer, as shown
in fig.
FUEL
AIR
Gases
Q
1 2
For this steady flow process, neglecting the
changes in kinetic and potential energies,
we have
Q
R
= H
P
- H
R
= H
2
- H
1
= (AH)
R

Where
H
2
= Enthalpy of products at section 2
H
1
= Enthalpy of reactants at section 1
Chemical Reactions
C + O2 CO2

H2 + 0.5 O2 H2O

CO+0.5O2 CO2

CaCO3 CaO + CO2
If the reactants and products are both at the
same temperature, the quantity (AH)
R
is
called the enthalpy of reaction.

The enthalpy of reaction or heat of
reaction of any chemical reaction at
constant pressure, is the heat released
(per unit quantity of fuel) in a steady-flow
process in which the reactants and
products are both at the same
temperature.
When a chemical reaction takes place there is
usually liberation or absorption of heat.

Chemical reactions which liberate energy in the
form of heat are known as exothermic
reactions and those which absorb energy are
called endothermic reactions.

In the above equation, if Q is positive, heat is
added to the system and Hp
2
> HR
1
, the reaction
is endothermic reaction.

If Q is negative, heat is released by the system,
the reaction is exothermic and Hp2 < HR1,.


Combustion Reaction
It is a fast, exothermic, oxidation, chemical
reaction.
Enthalpy of combustion
The enthalpy of Combustion or heat of
Combustion of any combustion reaction
at constant pressure, is the heat released
(or enthalpy change) per quantity unit of
fuel in a steady-flow combustion process
in which the reactants and products are
both at the same temperature.

Units : kJ/kg or kJ/kmol

Combustion Reactions
C + O
2
CO
2

H
2
+ 0.5 O
2
H
2
O

CO+0.5O
2
CO
2

CaCO3 CaO + CO2
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) g O H g O
2
1
g H
l O H g O
2
1
g H
2 2 2
2 2 2
+
+
During combustion reactions energy is
liberated in the form of heat.

Here Q is negative, because heat is
released by the system, the reaction is
exothermic and H
p2
< H
R1
,.


Enthalpy of Formation
The enthalpy of formation of a compound is
simply the enthalpy of reaction for the
formation of one unit of compound from its
most stable elements at the standard
conditions (at 25C and 1 atm).
Formation Reactions
C + O
2
CO
2

H
2
+ 0.5 O
2
H
2
O

CO+0.5O
2
CO
2

CaCO3 CaO + CO2
Consider the reaction of burning carbon with
oxygen to yield carbon dioxide as the product.


The chemical equations is
C(g) + O2 (g) CO
2
(g)

Although this is a combustion process, this may
also be considered as forming carbon dioxide
from its elements carbon and oxygen.
For this carbon oxygen reaction at constant pressure of 1
atm and 25C, the heat transferred from the system is
standard enthalpy of reaction.


If the enthalpies of the elements are set equal to zero, the
enthalpy of reaction (from the table) for this process is
found to be (393741 kJ/kg-mole.

Thus the enthalpy of formation of carbon dioxide
is 393741kJ/kg-mole.

That is, ( )
CO2
= -393741 kJ/kg-mole of CO2.

( )

2 2
O C CO
0 R 0 p C 25
h h h H H H Q = = A =


f
h
NOTE
The enthalpy of a reaction can be calculated
if the enthalpies of formation of all the
reactants and products are known.

The enthalpy of formation data can often be
used to compute enthalpy of combustion .

NOTE
Enthalpy of formation of elements at
Standard conditions is taken as zero


ADIABATIC FLAME
TEMPERATURE
It is the temperature of the products if no heat is transferred
from the combustion system and all the energy made
available is used to increase the temperature of the
products.

It is thus the maximum possible temperature of the
products.

There are a number of systems of industrial interest in
which the energy released during a reaction is stored in
the products.

In these it is important to know the maximum resulting
temperature.
Features of AFT (T
f
)


Determine the adiabatic flame temperature that
can be obtained by the combustion of n-Pentane
(C
5
H
12
) with stoiciometric air. Both the fuel and
air enter at 25 C and 1 atm. Assume complete
combustion. Given the following data :

[PTO]
Example
Given the following data :
Average molar specific heat of
CO
2
(g) : 62.75 J/mol.K
H
2
O (g) : 52.96 J/mol.K
O
2
(g) : 38.67 J/mol.K
N
2
(g) : 37.13 J/mol.K

Standard heat of formation of
CO2 (g) : -393510 J/mol
H
2
O (g) : -241820 J/mol
C
5
H
12
(g) : -146760 J/mol
O
2
and N
2
: 0.00 J/mol



[PTO]

C
5
H
12
+8O
2
+(8*3.76)N
2
5CO
2
+6H
2
O+30.08N
2
Enthalpy of the Reactants
H
R
= 1 (-146760) + 8 (0) + (8*3.76)(0)
Enthalpy of the Products:
H
p
= 5*(-393510) +5*(62.75) (T-25)
+6*(-241820)+6*(52.96)(T-25)
+30.06*(0)+30.06*(37.13)(T-25)
= (-3462179.5)+1748.38T


T =1897 deg.C
Example
Determine the adiabatic flame temperature
that can be obtained by the combustion of
n-Pentane (C
5
H
12
) with 25 % excess air.
Both the fuel and air enetr at 25 C and 1
atm. Assume complete combustion. Given
the following data :

[PTO]
Types of Heating Values
Higher Heating Value (HHV) (or)
Higher Calorific Value (HCV)
(OR)
Gross Heating Value (GHV) (or)
Gross Calorific Value (GCV)

Lower Heating Value (LHV) (or)
Lower Calorific Value (LCV)
(OR)
Net Heating Value (NHV) (or)
Net Calorific Value (NCV)


FUEL (1 kg)
Products
With H
2
O
as Liquid
HHV
Products
With H
2
O
as vapour
LHV
Air (15 kg or more)
48 MJ/kg
4 MJ
44 MJ/kg
Higher Heating Value (HHV) (or)
Higher Calorific Value (HCV)

HHV of a fuel is the amount of heat released during
the complete combustion of unit quantity of fuel
when the water formed during the combustion is
present in the form of Liquid in the products of
Combustion
( ) ( ) ( ) l O H 9 ) g ( CO 8 g O 5 . 12 l H C
2 2 2 18 8
+ +
Lower Heating Value (LHV) (or)
Lower Calorific Value (LCV)
LHV of a fuel is the amount of heat released
during the complete combustion of unit quantity
of fuel when the water formed during the
combustion is present in the form of vapour
in the products of Combustion
( ) ( ) ( ) g O H 9 ) g ( CO 8 g O 5 . 12 l H C
2 2 2 18 8
+ +