GENERAL FEATURES OF CHORDATE DEVELOPMENT

EMBRYOLOGY
the science dealing with the embryo and its development
EMBRYOGENY/EMBRYOGENESIS - the development of the embryo EMBRYO - the juvenile stage of an animal while it is contained in the egg (within the egg membranes) or in the maternal body
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Types of eggs based on the amount of yolk they contain: 1. microlecithal (oligolecithal) - little yolk present (amphioxus, marsupial and placental mammals) 2. mesolecithal - moderate amounts of yolk present (lamprey, sturgeon, lungfish, and amphibians) 3. macrolecithal (polylecithal) - large amounts of yolk present (hagfish, sharks, rays, teleost fish, reptiles, birds, and monotreme mammals)

Types of eggs based on how the yolk is distributed in it:

1. isolecithal (homolecithal) - the yolk is diffuse throughout the egg (true for microlecithal eggs)

microscopic eggs of mammals,

amphioxus

2. telolecithal - the yolk is concentrated towards

one side of the egg (true for mesolecithal and macrolecithal eggs) : fishes, reptiles amphibians, birds

The pole where the yolk is concentrated is called vegetal pole, the opposite end (with nucleus) is the animal pole.

- aphibians, fishes, lamprey

Embryogenesis

Fertilization

zygote (cleavage)

Organogenesis
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Entry of sperm cell to the egg cell

 Embryogenesis development of primary germ layers and their locations Organogenesis formation of the different organs

Stages of Embryogenesis

1. Cleavage 2. Gastrulation 3. Neurulation

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CLEAVAGE
* during this stage, a number of cell divisions

subdivides the originally single cell of the zygote into a ball of smaller cells - morula

* the hollow sphere of cells is called the blastula * each single cell is a blastomere, and the central cavity is the blastocoel
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Types of Cleavage
1. Holoblastic (=complete, equal) Cleavage

in oligolecithal eggs, where yolk is uniformly distributed and meager in amount

daughter cells are equal but smaller than the parent cell

e.g. Amphioxus

Holoblastic unequal cleavage

in mesolecithal eggs (moderate amount of yolk)

cells of different sizes result from different amounts of yolk in each pole

* amphibians

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2. Meroblastic Cleavage

in telolecithal eggs, where there is sufficient concentration of yolk at vegetal pole and active cytoplasm at opposite pole asymmetrically distributed yolk Only the small germinal disk undergoes cleavage two effects: 1. displaces nucleus toward animal pole 2. retarded cleavage

yolk impedes division at vegetal pole and cells of this hemisphere remains much larger than at the animal pole fish, birds, reptiles
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3. Discoidal Cleavage incomplete or meroblastic

relatively enormous mass of yolk in eggs

mass of inert yolk cause the yolk not to divide

partial separation of cells

segmentation is confined to animal pole and results in blastoderm (=blastodisc) perched on massive yolk (embryo develops from this blastoderm) most of vegetal pole with most of the yolk does not divide and becomes the periblast, a layer of cytoplasm adhering to the undivided yolk mass
e.g. chicken
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Cleavage in Amphibians

rapid within 24 hours along with blastula formation begins at the animal pole and bisects the gray crescent

elongate at a rate of 1mm/minute at the animal pole

slows to 0.02 to 0.03 mm/minute as it nears the vegetal pole second cleavage still at animal pole but plane is perpendicular to first cleavage
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 third cleavage is horizontal and passes near to animal pole dividing the embryo into: - four small blastomeres, the micromeres
- four large blastomeres, the macromeres embryo between the 16 to 64 cell stages is commonly called a morula
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Cleavage pattern in a frog egg

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Cleavage in Birds

occurs as the egg is passing down the oviduct

first cleavage furrow appears near the center of the blastodisc (=blastoderm)

sequence of cleavage furrows is not regular after the third cleavage, the sequence becomes synchronous fourth cleavage is circumferential and cuts off a central row 21 from a peripheral row of blastomeres

Cleavage in a bird embryo

Outer layer of blastula that gives rise to ectoderm after gastrulation

Beneath the epiblast and gives rise to endoderm

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Cleavage in Mammals

much slower than other vertebrates first cleavage is not completed for 24 hours Rotational type where it involves normal first division along the meridional axis, giving rise to 2 daughter cells then one will divide meridionally while the other divides equatorially.

subsequent divisions take 12 hours each

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 after this time, cell division is asynchronous, producing at times odd number of cells (rather than typical pattern 2-4-8-16-32-64) by 16-cell stage, inner cell mass is present that will form body of embryo; it forms embryonic disc at 32-cell stage, outer layer is expanded around blastocoel and forms trophoblast - absorb nutrients from uterine fluids - site of contact with uterus when implantation occurs Trophoblast - contributes to formation of placenta and 24 chorion) --- called blastocyst in mammals

 There are several differences between the cleavage in mammals and the cleavage in other animals. 1. Mammals have a slow rate of division that is between 12 and 24 hours. These cellular divisions are asynchronous. 2. Zygotic transcription starts at the two, four, or eight-cell stage. 3. Cleavage is holoblastic and rotational. At the eight-cell stage, the embryo goes through some changes. Most of the blastomeres in this stage become polarized and develop tight junctions with the other blastomeres. This process leads to the development of two different populations of cells: polar cells on the outside and 25 apolar cells on the inside.

4. The outer cells, called the trophoblast cells, pump sodium in from the outside which automatically brings water in with it to the basal (inner) surface to form a blastocoel cavity in a process called compaction. The embryo is now called a blastula or early blastocyst. 5. The trophoblast cells will eventually give rise to the embryonic contribution to the placenta called the chorion. 6. The inner cells are pushed to one side of the cavity (because the embryo isn't getting any bigger) to form the inner cell mass (ICM) and will give rise to the embryo and some extraembryonic membranes. At this stage, the embryo is called a blastocyst.
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 Human embryogenesis

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Gastrulation
Process by which the blastula becomes a three-layered embryo or gastrula
Zygote Morula Blastula Gastrula

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Gastrulation:

a dynamic process of cellular movements where: a. endoderm b. mesoderm c. notochord cells of blastula flow to the interior, forming the 3 germ layers from which all future tissues and organs form changes the radial symmetry into bilateral symmetry these cellular migrations are referred to as formative or morphogenetic movements
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Gastrula: converts

the blastula into a gastrula (little stomach) gastrula consists of 3 germ layers

1. Endoderm moves inwards to form gut lining

2. Ectoderm on the outside gives rise to epidermis and nervous system 3. Mesoderm produces the skeleton, muscles, circulatory system
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Cell Movement Patterns

1. EPIBOLY = movement of epithelial sheets (usually ectoderm cells) which spread to enclose the deeper layers of the embryo 2. INVAGINATION = infolding of a region of cells; epithelial cells fold inwards 3. INVOLUTION = outer layer expands and moves inwards covering the internal surface of the remaining external cells (rolling in of cells over a rim)

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4. INGRESSION = migration of individual cells from the surface layers into the interior of the embryo 5. DELAMINATION = splitting of one cellular sheet into two more or less parallel sheets

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Changes in epithelial organization that are important during gastrulation

Invagination - epithelial sheet bends inward to form an inpocketing Involution - tissue sheet rolls inward to form an underlying layer through bulk movement of tissue Ingression - cells leave an epithellial sheet by transforming from wellbehaved epithelial cells into freely migrating mesenchyme cells

Delamination - splitting of one cellular sheet or layer into two parallel layers , an outer layer (epiblast) and an inner layer (hypoblast)
Epiboly- sheet of cells spreads by thinning

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Gastrulation in Amphibians (Moderate telolecithal eggs) Invagination at margin of grey crescent (point of sperm entry at animal pole) Cleft forms (beginning of archenteron) Gives rise to dorsal lip of blastopore Sheet of cells at animal pole expand Moves towards dorsal lip, rolls over and turns inward - Involution Inward turning cells obliterate the blastocoel Form chordamesoderm
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Lip of blastopore overgrows yolk cells Epiboly Dorsal lip spreads laterally forming complete blastopore Blastopore surrounds yolk plug As yolk is used, blastopore closes Anus invaginates near closed blastopore
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Amphibian Gastrulation
-modified by the presence of large yolk laden cells in the vegetal pole (VP) (fig.A) -begins at the dorsal blastopore lip, just dorsal to the yolk

involution occurs at all points around the dorsal lip

Fig.A bottle cells

blastopore dorsal lip

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blastopore

So, what is achieved?

This involution creates and destroys the blastocoel. -the dorsal lip forms a circle, with cells moving to the interior, all around the blastopore

the yolk plug is visible through the blastopore.

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Gastrulation in Reptiles, Birds and Mammals

All germ layers develop from epiblast (upper surface of blastocoel)

Epiblast cells move to middorsal longitudinal axis Forms a thickened region called Primitive streak Cells move inwards and spread laterally into the blastocoel (manifested on surface of blastoderm as a longitudinal depression in the primitive streak) No opening (blastopore) for cells to move through Cells move individually into the blastocoel: Ingression Primitive streak the equivalent of blastopore First cells into blastocoel form endoderm Later cells form mesoderm

Cells remaining on surface from ectoderm

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Gastrulation in birds

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Fate of germ layers formed at gastrulation

Ectoderm nervous system, epidermis, nails, hair and other skin derivatives Mesoderm notochord, skeleton (bone and cartilage),
muscles, circulatory system, excretory system, respiratory system, dermis, outer layer of digestive tube and other structures, part of the respiratory system

Endoderm lining of the digestive tube & other

structures that develop from it, lining of respiratory system
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Gastrulation
It is not birth, marriage, or death,

but gastrulation which is truly the most important time in your life.
Lewis Wolpert (1986)

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Neurulation

nervous tissue is formed mesoderm finally forms the notochord, and the coelom is created nervous tissue is derived from ectoderm (neurectoderm)

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Neurulation
neurulation starts with ectodermal folds growing over the neural plate, which is folding upwards at the same time the result is a neural tube enclosing the neurocoel the neurocoel has two openings, the neurenteric canal and the neuropore.

Opening at each end of the neural tube formed at the cranial and caudal regions which closes as the embryo develops

Temporary duct connecting the neural tube and the primitive gut

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Neurulation II
in the roof of the gastrocoel or archenteron,the mesoderm layer called chordamesoderm gives rise to the notochord. mesoderm stimulates the neural ectoderm to form the central nervous system the flanking regions of the mesoderm fold inwards and pinch off parts of the gastrocoel

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Neural Tube Stage Embryo

Has a head and tail region
Has a dorsal surface and a ventral surface Has a primitive nervous system (neural tube) Has a skeletal support (notochord) Has a primitive gut (archenteron)
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 this occurs as a series of pouches along the length of the embryo; each pouch is called somite
the single pouch, i.e. the pocket of mesoderm, grow downward between ectoderm and endoderm

meet at the bottom and fuse to a single cavity, the coelom.

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Neurulation

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Amphioxus coelom formation is called enterocoely

if the mesoderm is a solid mass of cells (vertebrates) - form of coelom development is known as schizocoely

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Schizocoely vertebrate coelom formation

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Development of the human nervous system

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 In terrestrial vertebrates, the three germ layers give rise to four extraembryonic membranes:
1. Chorion - used in gas exchange
2. Amnion - a fluid-filled sac 3. Allantois - which stores wastes

4. Yolk sac - which makes food available to the embryo

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Extraembryonic membranes

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Organogenesis

Gastrulation

organogenesis (organ formation)

Cells of 3 germ layers continue pattern formation formation of specific structures

* ectoderm skin and nervous system * endoderm lining of the gut and internal organs * mesoderm muscles, bones , heart

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Early human development

Fertilization occurs in the oviduct Cleavage takes place as the embryo moves down the oviduct toward the uterus

The blastocyst undergoes implantation in the endometrium The umbilical cord connects the embryo to the placenta
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Implantation and early development in the uterus

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Prenatal and postnatal life

Human

prenatal development requires 266 days

Organogenesis begins during the first and continues throughout

trimester

After the first two months, the embryo is referred to as a fetus

The neonate undergoes rapid adaptations, especially in the respiratory and digestive systems

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Developmental events in the human embryo

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Days 7 10 Gastrulation
Ectoderm skin, nervous system Endoderm lining of gut and internal organs Mesoderm muscles, bones, heart

All cells have the same DNA, however, different cells begin to express different genes to become different organs.
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Week 2 Pregnancy becomes established

Formation of: 1. Fluid-filled amniotic cavity 2. Yolk sac 3. Embryo from embryonic disc Chorion (placenta)

* at the end of this period, a woman will just have missed her period!

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Days 15 21: Emergence of the body plan

Formation of: a. primitive streak site of the formation of 3 tissue layers: ectoderm, endoderm, mesoderm b. Neural groove - future spinal cord and brain c. Somites - bands of tissue that will become muscles and bones d. pharyngeal arches future face, neck, mouth, nose

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Weeks 3 8: (Embryo) Development of all organs

Day 22 heart begins to beat

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Week 4: How you looked at 1 month past conception

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Week 7/Day 48: First brain waves can be detected

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Human fetus at ten weeks

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Week 9 Week 40 (Fetus)

After 12 weeks or so, the babys development is largely finished except brain and lung development. The fetus spends much of the 2nd and 3rd trimester just growing ( and doing various flip-turns and kicks inside the amniotic sac.
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Week 11

I have two hands the left and the right.

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4 months week 16

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6 months
Ako ang tatalo sa yo Manny.

The unborn child is covered with a fine , downy hair called lanugo.
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8 months

The fetus sleeps 90 95% of the day.

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9 months/ week 40
Kaulaw baya ani mogawas daghan nagtan-aw.

The baby, now approximately 71/2 pounds, is ready for life outside its mothers womb.
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Parturition

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Di na gyud ko muusab. . .

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Aging

Marked by a decrease in homeostatic response to stress All body systems decline with age, but not at the same rate
Examples:

loss of taste buds and axons in spinal nerves Breakdown of collagen and elastic fibers Decrease in subcutaneous fats Decrease in sebum production by sebaceous glands Decrease in melanin production (gray hair and dark pattern of pigmentation on the skin) Decrease in hair replacement
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END
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The End
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