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Radio propagation fundamentals

MODULE 2
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Module 2 Radio propagation fundamentals
Objectives
After this module the participant shall be able to:-
Understand basic radio propagation mechanisms
Understand fading phenomena
Calculate free space loss
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Module Contents
Propagation mechanisms

Multipath And Fading

Propagation Slope And Different Environments
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Module Contents
Propagation mechanisms
Basics: deciBel (dB)
Radio channel
Reflections
Diffractions
Scattering

Multipath And Fading

Propagation Slope And Different Environments
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deciBel (dB) Definition
Power


Voltages
dB
P
P
P
lin
P dB
=
|
\

|
.
|
= 10 10
0
10
log [ ]
.
( )
dB
E
E
E
lin
E dB
=
|
\

|
.
|
= 20 10
0
20
log [ ]
.
( )

P
lin.
=|E
lin.
|

/ 2
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deciBel (dB) Conversion
Calculations in dB (deciBel)
Logarithmic scale
Always with respect to a reference
dBW = dB above Watt
dBm = dB above mWatt
dBi = dB above isotropic
dBd = dB above dipole
dBV/m = dB above V/m
Rule-of-thumb:
+3dB = factor 2
+7 dB = factor 5
+10 dB = factor 10
-3dB = factor 1/2
-7 dB = factor 1/5
-10 dB = factor 1/10
-30 dBm = 1 W
-20 dBm = 10 W
-10 dBm = 100 W
-7 dBm = 200 W
-3 dBm = 500 W
0 dBm = 1 mW
+3 dBm = 2 mW
+7 dBm = 5 mW
+10 dBm = 10 mW
+13 dBm = 20 mW
+20 dBm = 100mW
+30 dBm = 1 W
+40 dBm = 10W
+50 dBm = 100W
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Radio Channel Main Characteristics
Linear
In field strength
Reciprocal
UL & DL channel same (if in same frequency)
Dispersive
In time (echo, multipath propagation)
In spectrum (wideband channel)
a
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

delay time
direct path
echoes
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Propagation Mechanisms (1/2)
Free-space propagation
Signal strength decreases exponentially with
distance

Reflection
Specular reflection
amplitude A a*A (a < 1)
phase f - f
polarisation material dependant
phase shift

Diffuse reflection
amplitude A a *A (a < 1)
phase f random phase
polarisation random
specular reflection
diffuse reflection
D
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Propagation Mechanisms (2/2)
Absorption
Heavy amplitude attenuation
Material dependant phase shifts
Depolarisation

Diffraction
Wedge - model
Knife edge
Multiple knife edges
A A - 5..30 dB
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Scattering Macrocell
Scattering local to mobile
Causes fading
Small delay and angle spreads
Doppler spread causes time varying
effects
Scattering local to base station
No additional Doppler spread
Small delay spread
Large angle spread
Remote scattering
Independent path fading
No additional Doppler spread
Large delay spread
Large angle spread
Scattering to mobile
Scattering to base station
Remote scattering
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Scattering Microcell
Many local scatterers: Large angle spread
Low delay spread
Medium or high Doppler spread

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Module Contents
Reflections, Diffractions And Scattering

Multipath and Fading
Delay Time dispersion
Angle Angular Spread
Frequency Doppler Spread
Fading Slow & Fast

Propagation Slope And Different Environments
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Multipath propagation
Radio signal propagates from A to B over multiple paths using different
propagation mechanisms
Multipath Propagation
Received signal is a sum of multipath signals

Different radio paths have different properties
Distance Delay/Time
Direction Angle
Direction & Receiver/Transmitter Movement Frequency
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Delay Time dispersion
Multipath delays due to multipath propagation
1 s ~ 300 m path difference

WCDMA Rake receiver to combine multipath components
Components with delay separation more than 1 chip (0.26 s = 78 m) can be
separated and combined
Standardized delay profiles in 3GPP specs:
TU3 typical urban at 3 km/h (pedestrians)
TU50 typical urban at 50 km/h (cars)
HT100 hilly terrain (road vehicles, 100 km/h)
RA250 rural area (highways, up to 250 km/h)
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t
P
4.
3.
2.
1.
1.
2.
=>
f1
f1
f1
f1
BTS
1st floor
2nd floor
3rd floor
4th floor
Delay Spread
Multipath
propagation
Channel impulse
response
Delayed components in DAS
(Distributed antenna systems)
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Delay Spread
Typical values

Environment Delay Spread (s)
Macrocellular, urban

0.5-3

Macrocellular, suburban

0.5

Macrocellular, rural

0.1-0.2

Macrocellular, HT

3-10

Microcellular

< 0.1

Indoor

0.01...0.1

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Angle Angular Spread
Angular spread arises due to multipath, both from local scatterers near the
mobile and near the base station and remote scatterers

Angular spread is a function of base station location, distance and environment

Angular Spread has an effect mainly on the performance of diversity reception
and adaptive antennas
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Macrocellular Environment
= Macrocell Coverage Area
Microcellular Environment
= Microcell Coverage Area
Microcell Antenna
Macrocell Antenna
o
Angular Spread
5 - 10 degrees in macrocellular environment
>> 10 degrees in microcellular environment
< 360 degrees in indoor environment
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Frequency Doppler Spread
With a moving transmitter or receiver, the frequency observed by the receiver will
change (Doppler effect)
Rise if the distance on the radio path is decreasing
Fall if the distance in the radio path is increasing
The difference between the highest and the lowest frequency shift is called
Doppler spread
f
c
v v
f
d
= =

v: Speed of receiver (m/s)

c: Speed of light (3*10^8 m/s)
f: Frequency (Hz)
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Fading
Fading describes the variation of the total pathloss ( signal level) when
receiver/transmitter moves in the cell coverage area

Fading is commonly categorised to two categories based on the phenomena
causing it
Slow fading: Caused by shadowing because of obstacles
Fast fading: Caused by multipath propagation

Time-selective fading: Short delay + Doppler
Frequency-selective fading: Long delay
Space-selective fading: Large angle

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time
power
2 sec 4 sec 6 sec
+20 dB
mean
value
- 20 dB
lognormal
fading
Rayleigh
fading
Fading Slow & Fast
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Slow Fading Gaussian Distribution
Measurement campaigns have shown that slow fading follows Gaussian
distribution
Received signal strength in dB scale (e.g. dBm, dBW)
Gaussian distribution is described by mean value m, standard deviation o
68% of values are within m o
95% of values are within m 2o
Gaussian distribution used in planning margin calculations
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Slow Fading Gaussian Distribution
d
Normal / Gaussian Distribution
Standard Deviation,
o
= 7 dB
0.00000
0.01000
0.02000
0.03000
0.04000
0.05000
0.06000
0.07000
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
Normal / Gaussian Distribution
2
2
1
to
+o o
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Fast Fading
Different signal paths interfere and affect the received signal
Rice Fading the dominant (usually LOS) path exist







Rayleigh Fading no dominant path exist
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Fast Fading Rayleigh Distribution
It can be theretically shown that fast fading follows Rayleigh Distribution when
there is no single dominant multipath component
Applicable to fast fading in obstructed paths
Valid for signal level in linear scale (e.g. mW, W)
+10
0
-10
-20
-30
0 1 2 3 4 5 m
level (dB)
920 MHz
v = 20 km/h
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Fast Fading Rician Distribution
Fast fading follows Rician distribution when there is a dominant multipath
component, for example line-of-sight component combined with in-direct
components
Sliding transition between Gaussian and Rayleigh
Rice-factor K = r/A: direct / indirect signal energy
K = 0 Rayleigh
K >>1 Gaussian
K = 0
(Rayleigh)
K = 1
K = 5
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Module Contents
Reflections, Diffractions And Scattering

Multipath And Fading

Propagation Slope And Different Environments
Free Space Loss
Received power with antenna gain
Propagation slope

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Free Space Loss
Free space loss proportional to 1/d
2
Simplified case: isotropic antenna
Which part of total radiated power is found within surface A?
Power density S = P/A = P / 4 td
2

Received power within surface A : P = P/A * A
Received power reduces with square of distance
d
Surface A = 4t * d
2
assume surface
A= 1m
2
2d
4d
A = 4*A
A = 16*A
A
d
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Received power with antenna gain

Power density at the receiving end

Effective receiver antenna area

Received power
R eff
G A
t

4
2
=
s
s
G
d
P
S
2
4t
=
P
P
G G
d
r
s
s r
=
|
\

|
.
|

t 4
2
Ps
As
Gs
Pr
Ar
Gr
d
S A P
eff r
=
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Propagation slope
The received power equation can be formulated as


Where
C is a constant
is the slope factor
Free space = 2
Practical propagation = 2.5 ... 5

2
4
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
t

C

= d C G G P P
r s s r
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Module 2 Radio Propagation Fundamentals
Summary
Radio signal propagates with multiple propagation
mechanisms
Radio signal strength varies between locations Fading
Fading is caused by shadowing and multipath propagation
Received radio signal power attenuates with increasing
distance Propagation slope