Forced Convection

External turbulent flow over a flat plate

Nu = h
m
L/k = 0.036 (Pr )
0.43
(Re
L
0.8
9200 ) (

/
w
)
0.25

External turbulent flow (40 < Re
D
<10
5
) around a single
cylinder
Nu = h
m
D/k = (0.4 Re
D
0.5
+ 0.06 Re
D
(2/3)
) (Pr )
0.4
(

/
w
)
0.25

Use with care
Re
L
= Reynolds number based on length Q = heat transfer rate (W, Btu/hr)
Re
D
= Reynolds number based on tube diameter A = area (m
2
, ft
2
)
L = tube length (m, ft) t = temperature (C, F)
k = thermal conductivity (W/m/K, Btu/hr/ft/K) Pr = Prandtl number

= dynamic viscosity in free stream( kg/m/s, lbm/ft/min)

= dynamic viscosity at wall temperature ( kg/m/s, lbm/ft/min)

h
m
= mean convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m
2
/K, Btu/hr/ft
2
/F)
Natural Convection
Common regime when buoyancy is dominant
Dimensionless parameter
Rayleigh number
Ratio of diffusive to advective time scales
Book has empirical relations for
Vertical flat plates (eqns. 2.55, 2.56)
Horizontal cylinder (eqns. 2.57, 2.58)
Spheres (eqns. 2.59)
Cavities (eqns. 2.60)
Pr
T gH T H g
Ra
/ T
2
3 3
v vo
| A
=
A
=
H = plate height (m, ft)
T = temperature (C, F)
Q = heat transfer rate (W, Btu/hr)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s
2
, ft/min
2
)
T = absolute temperature (K, R)
Pr = Prandtl number
= kinematic viscosity = / (m
2
/s, ft
2
/min)
= thermal diffusivity (m
2
/s)

Phase Change Boiling
What temperature does water boil under ideal
conditions?





Radiation
Transfer of energy by electromagnetic
radiation
Does not require matter (only requires that the
bodies can see each other)
100 10,000 nm (mostly IR)
Surface Radiation Issues

1) Surface properties are spectral, f()
Usually: assume integrated properties for two
beams:
Short-wave and Long-wave radiation

2) Surface properties are directional, f()
Usually assume diffuse
Radiation emission
The total energy emitted by a body,
regardless of the wavelengths, is given by:



Temperature always in K ! - absolute temperatures

c emissivity of surface = 1 for blackbody

o Stefan-Boltzmann constant

A - area
4
AT Q
emited
co =
Short-wave & long-wave radiation
Short-wave solar radiation
<3m
Glass is transparent
Does not depend on surface temperature

Long-wave surface or temperature radiation
>3m
Glass is not transparent
Depends on surface temperature
Radiation Equations

|
|
.
|

\
|

+ +

2
2
2
1
2 1 1
1
4
2
4
1 1
2 1
1 1 1
) (
c
c
c
c
o
A
A
F
T T A
Q

|
|
.
|

\
|

+ +

=
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ +

=
2
2
2
1
2 1 1
1
3
2
2
2
1
2 1 1
1
2 1
4
2
4
1
1 1 1
4
1 1 1
) (
) (
c
c
c
c
o
c
c
c
c
o
A
A
F
T
A
A
F
T T
T T
h
avg
r
t A h Q
r rad
A =

Q
1-2
= Q
rad
= heat transferred by radiation (W, BTU/hr) F
1-2
= shape factor
h
r
= radiation heat transfer coefficient (W/m
2
/K, Btu/hr/ft
2
/F) A = area (ft
2
, m
2
)
T,t = absolute temperature (R , K) , temperature (F, C)
= emissivity (surface property)
= Stephan-Boltzman constant = 5.67 10
-8
W/m
2
/K
4

= 0.1713 10
-8
BTU/hr/ft
2
/R
4


Combining Convection and Radiation
Both happen
simultaneously on a
surface
Slightly different
temperatures





Often can use h = h
c
+ h
r

Humidity Ratio, W
W = m
w
/m
a
Degree of saturation, = W/W
s
Humidity ratio is hard to measure, but very
useful in calculations
What are units?
Is W a function of temperature? What about
W
s
?

W
s
= humidity ratio at saturation
m
a
= mass of dry air
m
w
= mass of water vapor
Relative Humidity
= x
w
/x
w,s
= P
w
/P
ws

Function of T


Easy to measure and useful in some contexts, but
often need to know temperature as well
W
W
s
+
+
= u
622 . 0
622 . 0

x = mole fraction
P = pressure
= degree of saturation
W = humidity ratio
Dew-point temperature, t
d
Temperature at which condensation will form
Under appropriate surface conditions
Vapor is saturated
= ?
W
s
(P, t
d
) = W

Wet-bulb temperature, VBT (t*)
Temperature of wet surface or

Temperature at which water, by evaporating into the
air, will bring air to saturation adiabatically

* superscript is designation that variable is evaluated
at the wet-bulb temperature
Note, distinct from that measured by a sling
psychrometer
Section 9.5
Tables for Moist Air (P = 1 atm)
Tables A.4 in your text
Ability to get W
s
for calculations
Subscripts:
a = dry air, s = saturated air
v = v
a
+v
as
h = h
a
+h
as

s = s
a
+s
as
Psychrometric Chart
Need two quantities for a state point
Can get all other quantities from a state point
Can do all calculations without a chart
Often require iteration
Many digital psychrometric charts available
Can make your own
Best source is ASHRAE fundamentals (Chapter 6)
Also in your text (back cover fold-out)
Ref: Tao and Janis (2001)
Ref: Tao and Janis (2001)
Ref: Tao and Janis (2001)
Ref: Tao and Janis (2001)
Examples
What is enthalpy of air in the classroom right
now?
Condensation on windows when taking a
shower
How cold does it have to be outside for condensation to
form on windows?
Assumption is that windows are the same temperature as
outside air
80 F, RH = 80%
Alternate calculation for W
PV = mRT (IGL)



What do we know about R ratio?
P = P
w
+ P
a
w
a
a
w
T R
V P
T R
V P
a
w
R
R
P
P
m
m
W
a
a
w
w
=
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
w
w
P P
P
W

= 622 . 0
R = gas constant
P = pressure
V = volume
T = absolute temperature
W = humidity ratio

Subscripts: w is water
vapor, a is dry air
Calculation of psychometric quantities
For an ideal gas,
h
da
= c
pa
dT, h
w
= c
pw
dT

So, h
da
= c
p,da
t which assumes a reference state of 0
F or 0 C Tables A4
Note different reference

h
w
= c
pw
t + h
g0

h = c
p,da
t + W(c
pw
t + h
g0
)
Or you can use:
h = c
p
t + Wh
g0
, c
p
= c
p,da
+ Wc
pw

c
p
= specific heat
h = enthalpy
T = absolute temperature
t = temperature
W = humidity ratio

Subscripts: w is water
vapor, a is dry air, g is
saturated water vapor
Adiabatic mixing
Governing equation
h m Q h m
out in

= +

External heat
Sensible heating
t c m Q
p
A =

Dehumidification by Cooling
Real Dehumidification Process
Mold in a duct
Transport of saturated air
tsurface < tdp Condensation
Humidification
h
w
Specific enthalpy
of water added to
system
h
g
Specific enthalpy
of saturated water
vapor
Summary
Describe psychrometric quantities
Given any two psychrometric quantities,
calculate any other quantity
Use Tables A4 or psychrometric charts to look
up psychrometric quantities
Calculate psychrometric quantities at non-
standard conditions