Wireless Communication Engineering

(Fall 2004)
Lecture 2

Professor Mingbo Xiao Sept. 30, 2004

Announcements

Homepage of the course: http://eed.xmu.edu.cn/person/mbxiao/ wireless_course/index.html Next class on Oct. 10 (Sunday) Homework 1&2 are due on Oct. 10 Reading Chap. 2, 6, and 8 in textbook

Digital Communications

Review the basic principles and concepts of digital communication systems Physical layer of the network protocol stacks (remember the OSI model?) Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, Application

Elements of Comm. System

Information Source and Input Transducer Source Encoder Channel Encoder Digital Modulator Channel Digital Demodulator Channel Decoder Source Decoder Output Transducer

Digital Communication System

Data Communication Terms

Data - entities that convey meaning, or information Signals - electric or electromagnetic representations of data Transmission - communication of data by the propagation and processing of signals

Analog Signals

A continuously varying electromagnetic wave that may be propagated over a variety of media, depending on frequency Examples of media:

Copper wire media (twisted pair and coaxial cable) Fiber optic cable Atmosphere or space propagation

Analog signals can propagate analog and digital data

Digital Signals

A sequence of pulses that may be transmitted over a medium Generally cheaper than analog signaling Less susceptible to noise interference Suffer more from attenuation Digital signals can propagate analog and digital data

Input Source

Source output may be analog or digital Analog signal - signal intensity varies in a smooth fashion over time

No breaks or discontinuities in the signal E.g., Output of Video or Audio

Digital signal - signal intensity maintains a constant level for some period of time and then changes to another constant level

E.g., Output of teletype machine

Analog Signaling EM Spectrum for Telecom

Figure 2.10 (pdf) Most spectra licensed; 3G license is very expensive; FCC is a mighty sector Infrared, ISM band, and amateur radio band are license-free HW1: Find out what spectrum is used for GSM, IS-95, 802.11b WLAN. What data rates are available in each system? What transmission characteristics makes these spectrum bands suitable for wireless communications?

Reasons for Choosing Data and Signal Combinations

Digital data, digital signal

Equipment for encoding is less expensive than digital-to-analog equipment Conversion permits use of modern digital transmission and switching equipment Some transmission media will only propagate analog signals Examples include optical fiber and satellite Analog data easily converted to analog signal

Analog data, digital signal

Digital data, analog signal

Analog data, analog signal

Representation of Signals

Time domain waveform

amplitude vs time plot zero crossings relate to frequency content amplitude vs frequency plot

Frequency domain waveform

Related by Fourier Transform

Time domain
amplitude (volts) time (seconds)

examining zero crossings suggests more than one frequency present, with different amplitudes

Frequency domain
amplitude (volts) f1 f2 frequency (hertz)

The Square Wave

Waveform with equal on and off times Can be represented by a series of harmonically related sinewaves:

fundamental plus 1/3 third harmonic plus 1/5 fifth harmonic plus 1/7 seventh harmonic plus 1/9 ninth harmonic plus etc.

Square wave example

y = sin(x) + 1/3 sin(3x) + 1/5sin(5x) + 1/7sin(7x) + 1/9sin(9x) + 1/11sin(11x) + 1/13sin(13x)

Square wave - power spectrum

implies infinite bandwidth to transmit a square wave

Spectrum of a Data Pulse1

keep pulse width constant and increase periodicity

Spectrum of a Data Pulse2

keep periodicity constant and decrease pulse width

Coding

Waveform Coding converts an analogue signal into

digital form.

Source coding modifies the analogue or digital source

to make it best suited for transmission (e.g.MPEG / JPEG) Channel coding adds redundancy to improve detection / correction of errors [Modulation coding modifies a modulation symbol set again to overcome errors]

Analogue / Digital Conversion

More grandly called pulse code modulation (PCM) involves:

Regular sampling of the input signal Conversion of the sample to a number

Accuracy of the A/D converter depends on number of bits Speech 8 bit Music HiFi 16/18, even 24 bit [Video 8 bit x 3 colours to give 24 bit]

Nyquist Sampling
Key goal - minimise number of samples for accurate representation of the signal?

Nyquist criterion sample at twice the

bandwidth of the signal (twice maximum frequency in a baseband signal) Sampling at less than this results in aliasing

Nyquist Sampling System

Nyquist Criterion

Can be derived intuitively from our knowledge of Fourier series. The sampling process can be viewed as the mixing of the input signal with a train of very narrow data sampling pulses; this results in a series of sum and difference components appearing at the mixer output for each harmonic of the pulse waveform. To reconstruct the input waveform we simply filter the output of the D/A converter.

Alias Effect

Aliasing

If the sampling criterion is not met and we sample at less than the twice the maximum frequency of the input waveform, the sum and difference components associated with each harmonic of the input waveform overlap with those of adjacent harmonics and we can no longer separate out the sampled waveform by filtering.

Practical Sampling

Need to filter out baseband components above the range of interest Use a sampling frequency of 2.2 fmax to allow for practical filters e.g. speech telephony 300Hz 3.4kHz is sampled at 8 kHz CD sampling at 44.1 kHz for 20 kHz audio band

Dynamic Range1

Dynamic Range2

Important that A/D converter can deal with both large and small signals. Ratio of Vmax to Vmin over which converter will operate is its Dynamic Range Depends on the number of bits the converter uses More bits means more Quantization levels

Quantization Noise

Companding

A technique for reducing the number of bits while achieving an equivalent dynamic range or signal to Quantization noise level COMPressing and expANDING Decrease Quantization step size for small signals and increase for large signals International standards for telephony

A Law European m Law USA

Homework
1.

2.

Find out the details of A Law and m Law Show that the peak S/N ratio for A/D conversion is given by 3M 2/2, where M=2 n and n is the number bits.

Source Coding

Source coding finds a digital representation of source messages with little or no redundancy. Also known as data compression. Usually, now, an algorithm to realise bit or symbol content compression in addition to (waveform) A/D conversion. Two types: lossy and lossless compression Voice coding can be lossy, but some data file compression must be lossless.

Entropy and Optimal Coding

Entropy of a discrete random variable X is defined as M

H ( X ) P( X xi ) log P( X xi )
i 1

Entropy is a measure of uncertainty, also a measure of the information. Entropy is the lower bound of the average code length of the decodable binary coding. Heuristics: shorter codeword for symbol occurs with higher frequency. The codes are of variable length.

Current Algorithms

Image compression algorithms

MPEG moving image JPEG static image

Voice & Music

Less well standardised GSM codecs / MP3

Complementary coder / decoder

Classes of Speech Coding

Waveform coding i.e. A/D conversion Frequency domain coding vocoder Parametric coding

e.g. LPC linear predictive coding

Maintain the subjective quality of the signal (audio or visual) not, necessarily, the shape of the input waveform.

Voice Coding

Use of companding in a speech band voice coder (8 bit A or m law) gives the equivalent subjective quality as a 12 bit linear coder. Sampling at 8000 times per second gives the familiar 64 kbit/s rate At the exchange a number of these 8 bit words from different phone source are assembled (multiplexed) into a FRAME

Assembling a Frame

E Series Frame
E = European standard E series frame is 8 x 32 = 256 bits wide and is sent at 8000 times per second Bit rate of basic E1 frame is 256 x 8000 = 2.048 Mbit/s HW3: What source coding techniques are used in GSM and IS-95?

Channel Coding

Is applied to communication links to improve the reliability of the information being transferred. By adding additional bits to the data stream which increases the amount of data to be sent it is possible to detect and even correct errors at the receiver. Also known as Error Control Coding.

Basic Approaches

Error detection involves recognising that

part of the received information is in error and requesting a repeat transmission.

CRC [Cyclic Redundancy Check] ARQ [Automatic Repeat Request]

Error detection and correction possible

with added complexity and without retransmission.

FEC [Forward Error Correction]

Parity
How does ARQ detect errors?

One of the simplest yet most frequently used technique is the parity check bit.

e.g. modem set up includes odd and even parity alongside stop bits

Parity Check is a single bit (1 or 0) added to the end of the data word such that the number of 1s in the new data word is even for even parity or odd for odd parity.

Types of FEC Coding

Two main types

Block coding where a group (or block) of

bits is processed as a whole in order to create a new (longer) coded block for transmission. There is a complementary block decoder in the receiver. Convolutional coding which operates on the incoming serial bit stream generating a real-time encoded serial output stream.

Basics of Block Coding

The terminology for block coding is that an input block of k bits give rise to an output block of n bits; this is called an (n,k) code.

The increase in block length means that the useful data rate (information transfer rate) is reduced by a factor k/n; this is known as the rate of the code. The factor 1 - k/n is known as the redundancy of the code

Hamming Code Example

Hamming Codes
Named after their discoverer R.W. Hamming A rate 4/7 Hamming code as example Each of the 16 possible four-bit input blocks is coded into a 7-bit output block 7 The 16 output blocks are chosen from 2 = 128 possible seven bit patterns as being most dissimilar. Each differs by 3 bits.

If 1 error occurs receiver can correct it If 2 errors occur receiver can recognise it If 3 errors occur they go undetected

Block Code Families

Hamming codes are a subset of the more general code family known as BCH (Bose-Chaudhuri-Hocquenhem) codes discovered in 1959 and 1960.

Whereas Hamming can detect up to 2 or correct 1 error general BCH codes can correct any number of errors if the code is long enough, e.g. (11,1023) can correct 255 errors used in deep space probes.

Interleaving

Block codes work well where errors are distributed evenly fixed networks.

Mobile radio errors occur in bursts as signal fades so we use interleaving. Read encoded data blocks in rows of matrix When matrix full, read out blocks as columns At receiver inverse process for deinterleaving which redistributes the burst errors uniformly Penalty latency / time delay for processing

Implementation

Reed-Solomon Codes

RS codes are a subset of BCH codes that operate at the block level rather than bit level. Incoming blocks are represented by a new set of k symbols to be packaged in a super-coded block of n symbols Decoder can detect and correct complete errored blocks used in mobile radio / CD as alternative / addition to interleaving.

Convolutional Coding

Operates serially on the incoming bit stream and the output block of n code digits generated by the coder depends not only on the block of k input digits but also, because there is memory in the coder the previous K input frames. The property K is known as the constraint length of the code. An optimum decoding algorithm, called Viterbi decoding, uses a similar procedure.

Homework 4
A mobile data radio link uses interleaving to spread the data errors on reception. If the interleaving depth is used is a 10 x 8 matrix and the bit rate for the signal is 9600 bit/s what is the latency introduced by the interleaving process?

Channel Coding Summary

Channel coding adds some redundancy, which can be used at the receiver to overcome the effects of noise or interference introduced in transmission over channel. Impairments, such as noise, also limit data rate that can be achieved. Channel Capacity is the theoretical maximum rate at which data can be transmitted over a channel, under given conditions. Advanced schemes such as Turbo coding and LDPC approach the capacity.

About Channel Capacity

Impairments, such as noise, limit data rate that can be achieved For digital data, to what extent do impairments limit data rate? Channel Bandwidth: the amount of frequency spectrum we give to each user Channel Capacity the maximum rate at which data can be transmitted over a given communication path, or channel, under given conditions

Concepts Related to Channel Capacity

Data rate - rate at which data can be communicated (bps) Bandwidth - the bandwidth of the transmitted signal as constrained by the transmitter and the nature of the transmission medium (Hertz) Noise - average level of noise over the communications path Error rate - rate at which errors occur

Error = transmit 1 and receive 0; transmit 0 and receive 1

Signal-to-Noise Ratio

Ratio of the power in a signal to the power contained in the noise thats present at a particular point in the transmission Typically measured at a receiver Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR, or S/N)
( SNR) dB

A high SNR means a high-quality signal, low number of required intermediate repeaters SNR sets upper bound on achievable data rate

signal power 10 log10 noise power

Shannon Capacity Formula

Equation:

Represents theoretical maximum that can be achieved In practice, only much lower rates achieved

C B log 2 1 SNR

Formula assumes white noise (thermal noise) Impulse noise is not accounted for Attenuation distortion or delay distortion not accounted for