Research Methods

Prof. Dr. S. Shafiqur Rehman

Department of Environmental Science University of Peshawar

Varieties of writing
Creative Writing
Novel, story, drama, poetry

Critique or analysis
Review, column, popular articles

Reporting
News reporting

Academic/Technical writing
Textbooks, research papers, proceedings, dissertations

Quality of a good Textbook or Supplementary Reader

Properly structured Well researched contents Coherent text Easy vocabulary Use of pictures and graphics Definitions of new terms Questions to invoke critical thinking Glossary

(Text)Book Writing - issues

An art and a science Protracted Commitment
Span of highly focused attention Other distractions

Linguistic mastery
Vocabulary Grammatical control

Relevancy
Conceptual Contextual

Principles of Learning
The Demonstration Principle
Learning is promoted when learners observe a demonstration

The Application Principle

.. apply the new knowledge

The Activation Principle

.. activate prior knowledge or experience

The Integration Principle

........ integrate their new knowledge into their everyday world

The Task-Centered Principle

engage in task-centre instructional activity

Levels of pedagogical objectives

Knowledge

Comprehension Application Analysis

Rote memorization, recognition or recall of facts

Understanding what the facts mean

Correct use of facts, rules or ideas

Synthesis

Breaking down information into component parts Combination of parts to make a new whole Judging the value or worth of information/ideas

Evaluation

Common Book Structure

Parts
Represents major topics or levels

Chapters
Clearly identifiable major topics Major sub-topics, single unit of instruction Sub-sections To denote a concept or procedure

Sections

Structure reflects the amount of information provided, the amount of differentiation made within & between topics, and each topic's relative importance in the scheme of things All headings should have at least two sub-sections

Chapter Structure
Openers
Introduction, chapter outline, learning goals

Closers
Conclusions, review questions, exercises, bibliography and links

Integrates pedagogical devices

Typographic emphasis, tables & graphics, cross references, markers, marginalia, illustrations

Interior features strands

Case studies, profiles, models, primary data

Research
A systematic and critical process of academic investigation or enquiry willfully undertaken with a view to discover new facts, phenomena or solving a problem
The process includes formulation of topic, study of background literature, collection and analysis of empirical observations, interpretation and generalization of results, peer review and publishing

Types of Research (Purpose)

Fundamental/basic research Experimental and theoretical work undertaken to acquire Applied research
new knowledge without looking for long-term benefits other than the advancement of knowledge

Action research

A research undertaken to solve practical problems rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge sake A methodology that combines action and research to examine specific questions, issues or phenomena through observation and reflection, and deliberate intervention to improve practice

Descriptive research To provide insight into the research problem by describing

the non-manipulated variables of interest. Commonly used for profiling, defining, segmentation, estimating, predicting and examining associative relationships

Types of Research (Methods)

Historical research (what was)
Involves investigating, recording, analyzing and interpreting events of the past to discover generalizations that may help understand the past, present and future

Quantitative research (what is)

A type of descriptive research which involves investigating, recording, analyzing and interpreting quantifiable data through comparisons/contrasts to discover relationship between non-manipulated existing variables

Qualitative research (what is)

A subjective procedure exploring non-quantifiable relationships between existing variables

Experimental research (what will be)

Variables are carefully controlled or manipulated to discover the cause and affect relationship between them

Classification
No 2 objects / processes are identical but may bear likeness to one another The objective of science is to reduce this complexity by classifying objects or processes together based on what they have in common Similarities can be genetic, structural or fundamental leading to taxonomic orders and hence classification

Definition
A statement whose truth is asserted but not considered liable to empirical challenge Functions
Grounding concepts in general observation Describe relationship between concepts and properties Indicating suitability with other concepts Introducing metrical considerations Mathematically linking different concepts

Types of definitions
Ostensive
To explain meaning To describe properties and relations To introduce metrical considerations To substitute one concept for other Transformation to symbolic expressions (equations)

Descriptive

Operational
Lexical

Mathematical

Key Terms
Hypothesis
A proposition that typically states the existence, size, form or distribution of some variable A declarative sentence used for assertion of some relationship between concepts Generalizations that are not confirmed Relationship between fact and its cause, subject to experimental verification

Contd
Theory
A set of asserted universal propositions in a set of universal sentences An outlook, systematically acquired and derived by observation and empirical evidence capable of agreement and corroboration It establishes a cause-and-effect relationship between different variables with the purpose of explaining and predicting phenomena

 Concept
Words and terms used for conveying certain meanings Concepts are fundamental in seeking knowledge (perception) and expressing knowledge (conception)

Fact
Self-evident, universally agreed upon pieces of information

Sampling
The primary purpose of research is to ascertain and generalize universally applicable principles among a group of individuals who has one or more characteristics in common It makes it possible to draw valid inferences (generalize) based on careful observation of variables within a relatively small proportion of population A sample is a small proportion of population selected for observation and analysis

Contd..
Sampling makes the study doable in terms of time, money, energy and accessibility Samples are chosen in a systematically random manner so that the principle of probability is utilized Randomness of a sample aims at ascertaining the general (mean) trends among a group of individuals retaining their independent characteristics Extreme values around a mean value of a variable represent the sampling error

Types of samples
The systematic sample
By selecting each nth term of the list

The stratified random sample

By subdividing the population into small homogeneous groups

The area or cluster sample

Population is divided into clusters

Nonprobability samples
Samples from whatever is available rather than subject selection process

Sample size
Trade-off between the desirable large (representative) sample and the feasibility of a small one The larger the sample, the smaller the magnitude of sampling error Survey studies typically should have a larger sample than needed in an experimental study If a population is to be divided into subgroups for comparison, large size samples are advised Subject availability and cost are determining factors in sample size

FAQs in evaluating a problem

Is the problem significant Is the problem new Is research feasible on this issue
Am I competent Are pertinent data accessible Do I have enough financial resources Do I have enough time Do I have the determination to overcome difficulties and distractions

Sources of relevant literature

Thematic Bibliographies Library catalogues Current Indices (CD ROM, Hard Copies) Index to doctoral dissertations Digital libraries On-line search engines Archives

Research Design
A complete road-map or layout of the proposed research having following
Title of study Background literature Objectives Importance of investigation Work plan Methodology Scope Requirements (material & financial)

Research Problem - criteria

Clear and unambiguous Logical and systematic Empirical Relation between variables Verifiable Interesting