Dimensional Analysis And

Similitude & Model Analysis

Dimensional Analysis
Introduction:

Dimensional analysis is a mathematical technique
making use of study of dimensions.
This mathematical technique is used in research work for
design and for conducting model tests.
It deals with the dimensions of physical quantities
involved in the phenomenon. All physical quantities are
measured by comparison, which is made with respect to
an arbitrary fixed value.

Types of Dimensions:

Fundamental Dimensions or Fundamental Quantities
Secondary Dimensions or Derived Quantities

Methodology of Dimensional Analysis
The Basic principle is Dimensional Homogeneity, which
means the dimensions of each terms in an equation on
both sides are equal.

So such an equation, in which dimensions of each term
on both sides of equation are same, is known as
Dimensionally Homogeneous equation. Such equations
are independent of system of units. For example;

Lets consider the equation V=(2gH)
1/2
Dimensions of LHS=V=L/T=LT
-1

Dimensions of RHS=(2gH)
1/2
=(L/T
2
xL)
1/2
=LT
-1
Dimensions of LHS= Dimensions of RHS

So the equation V=(2gH)
1/2
is dimensionally
homogeneous equation.
Methods of Dimensional Analysis
If the number of variables involved in a physical phenomenon are
known, then the relation among the variables can be determined by
the following two methods;
Rayleighs Method:
It is used for determining expression for a variable (dependent)
which depends upon maximum three to four variables (Independent)
only.
If the number of independent variables are more than 4 then it is
very difficult to obtain expression for dependent variable.
Buckinghams (pie)-Theorem: Since Rayleighs Method
becomes laborious if variables are more than fundamental
dimensions (MLT), so the difficulty is overcome by Buckinghams -
Theorem which states that
If there are n variables (Independent and Dependent) in a physical
phenomenon and if these variables contain m fundamental
dimensions then the variables are arranged into (n-m)
dimensionless terms which are called -terms.


Similitude and Model Analysis
Similitude is a concept used in testing of Engineering
Models.

Usually, it is impossible to obtain a pure theoretical
solution of hydraulic phenomenon.

Therefore experimental investigations are often
performed on small scale models, called model analysis.

A few examples, where models may be used are ships in
towing basins, air planes in wind tunnel, hydraulic
turbines, centrifugal pumps, spillways of dams, river
channels etc and to study such phenomenon as the
action of waves and tides on beaches, soil erosion, and
transportation of sediment etc.
Model Analysis
Model: is a small scale replica of the actual structure.
Prototype: the actual structure or machine.
Note: It is not necessary that the models should be
smaller that the prototype, they may be larger than
prototype (e.g. Water Treatment Plant, Floatation
Columns).


Prototype Model
L
p3
L
p1
L
p2
F
p1
F
p3
F
p2
L
m3
L
m1
L
m2
F
m1
F
m3
F
m2
Model Analysis
Model Analysis is actually an experimental method of
finding solutions of complex flow problems.

The followings are the advantages of the model analysis
The performance of the hydraulic structure can be predicted in
advance from its model.
Using dimensional analysis, a relationship between the variables
influencing a flow problem is obtained which help in conducting
tests.
The merits of alternative design can be predicted with the help of
model analysis to adopt most economical, and safe design.

Note: Test performed on models can be utilized for
obtaining, in advance, useful information about the
performance of the prototype only if a complete similarity
exits between the model and the prototype.
Similitude-Type of Similarities
Similitude: is defined as similarity between the model
and prototype in every respect, which mean model and
prototype have similar properties or model and prototype
are completely similar.

Three types of similarities must exist between model and
prototype.

Geometric Similarity
Kinematic Similarity
Dynamic Similarity
Similitude-Type of Similarities
Geometric Similarity: is the similarity of shape. It is said to exist
between model and prototype if ratio of all the corresponding linear
dimensions in the model and prototype are equal. E.g.

p p p
r
m m m
L B D
L
L B D
= = =
Where: L
p
, B
p
and D
p
are Length, Breadth, and diameter of prototype
and L
m
, B
m
, D
m
are Length, Breadth, and diameter of model.
Lr= Scale ratio

Note: Models are generally prepared with same scale ratios in every
direction. Such a model is called true model. However, sometimes it
is not possible to do so and different convenient scales are used in
different directions. Such a models is call distorted model
Similitude-Type of Similarities
Kinematic Similarity: is the similarity of motion. It is said to exist
between model and prototype if ratio of velocities and acceleration at
the corresponding points in the model and prototype are equal. E.g.

1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
;
p p p p
r r
m m m m
V V a a
V a
V V a a
= = = =
Where: V
p1
& V
p2
and a
p1
& a
p2
are velocity and accelerations at point
1 & 2 in prototype and V
m1
& V
m2
and a
m1
& a
m2
are velocity and
accelerations at point 1 & 2 in model.
V
r
and a
r
are the velocity ratio and acceleration ratio

Note: Since velocity and acceleration are vector quantities, hence
not only the ratio of magnitude of velocity and acceleration at the
corresponding points in model and prototype should be same; but
the direction of velocity and acceleration at the corresponding points
in model and prototype should also be parallel.
Similitude-Type of Similarities
Dynamic Similarity: is the similarity of forces. It is said to exist
between model and prototype if ratio of forces at the corresponding
points in the model and prototype are equal. E.g.

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
g
i v
p p p
r
i v
g
m m
m
F
F F
F
F F
F
= = =
Where: (F
i
)
p
, (F
v
)
p
and (F
g
)
p
are inertia, viscous and gravitational
forces in prototype and (F
i
)
m
, (F
v
)
m
and (F
g
)
m
are inertia, viscous and
gravitational forces in model.
F
r
is the Force ratio

Note: The direction of forces at the corresponding points in model
and prototype should also be parallel.
Types of forces encountered in fluid Phenomenon
Inertia Force, Fi: It is equal to product of mass and acceleration in
the flowing fluid.

Viscous Force, Fv: It is equal to the product of shear stress due to
viscosity and surface area of flow.

Gravity Force, Fg: It is equal to product of mass and acceleration
due to gravity.

Pressure Force, Fp: it is equal to product of pressure intensity and
cross-sectional area of flowing fluid.

Surface Tension Force, Fs: It is equal to product of surface tension
and length of surface of flowing fluid.

Elastic Force, Fe: It is equal to product of elastic stress and area of
flowing fluid.
Dimensionless Numbers
These are numbers which are obtained by dividing the
inertia force by viscous force or gravity force or pressure
force or surface tension force or elastic force.

As this is ratio of once force to other, it will be a
dimensionless number. These are also called non-
dimensional parameters.

The following are most important dimensionless
numbers.
Reynolds Number
Froudes Number
Eulers Number
Webers Number
Machs Number
Dimensionless Numbers
Reynolds Number, Re: It is the ratio of inertia force to the viscous force of
flowing fluid.
. .
Re
. .
. . .
.
. .
Velocity Volume
Mass Velocity
Fi
Time Time
Fv Shear Stress Area Shear Stress Area
QV AV V AV V VL VL
du V
A
A A
dy L

t u

= = =
= = = = =
2
. .
. .
. .
. .
Velocity Volume
Mass Velocity
Fi
Time Time
Fe
Fg Mass Gavitational Acceleraion Mass Gavitational Acceleraion
QV AV V V V
Volume g AL g gL
gL

= = =
= = = =
Froudes Number, Re: It is the ratio of inertia force to the gravity force
of flowing fluid.
Dimensionless Numbers
Eulerss Number, Re: It is the ratio of inertia force to the pressure force of
flowing fluid.
2
. .
Pr . Pr .
. .
. . /
/
u
Velocity Volume
Mass Velocity
Fi
Time Time
E
Fp essure Area essure Area
QV AV V V V
P A P A P
P

= = =
= = = =
2 2
. .
. .
. .
. . .
Velocity Volume
Mass Velocity
Fi
Time Time
We
Fg Surface Tensionper Length Surface Tensionper Length
QV AV V LV V
L L L
L

o o o
o

= = =
= = = =
Webers Number, Re: It is the ratio of inertia force to the surface
tension force of flowing fluid.
Dimensionless Numbers
Machs Number, Re: It is the ratio of inertia force to the elastic force of
flowing fluid.
2 2
2
. .
. .
. .
. .
/
: /
Velocity Volume
Mass Velocity
Fi
Time Time
M
Fe Elastic Stress Area Elastic Stress Area
QV AV V LV V V
K A K A KL C
K
Where C K

= = =
= = = = =
=
Model Laws or similarity Laws
We have already read that for dynamic similarity ratio of corresponding
forces acting on prototype and model should be equal. i.e
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
g p
v s e I
p p p p p p
v s e I
g p
m m m m
m m
F F
F F F F
F F F F
F F
= = = = =
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
Thus dynamic similarity require that
v g p s e I
v g p s e
I
p p
I
v g p s e
m
m
F F F F F F
F F F F F
F
F
F F F F F
+ + + + =
+ + + +
=
+ + + +
Force of inertial comes in play when sum of all other forces is not
equal to zero which mean
In case all the forces are equally important, the above two equations
cannot be satisfied for model analysis
Model Laws or similarity Laws
However, for practical problems it is seen that one force
is most significant compared to other and is called
predominant force or most significant force.

Thus for practical problem only the most significant force
is considered for dynamic similarity. Hence, models are
designed on the basis of ratio of force, which is
dominating in the phenomenon.

Finally the laws on which models are designed for
dynamic similarity are called models laws or laws of
similarity. The followings are these laws
Reynolds Model Law
Froudes Model Law
Eulers Model Law
Webers Model Law
machs Model Law
Reynolds Model Law
It is based on Reynolds number and states that
Reynolds number for model must be equal to the
Reynolds number for prototype.
Reynolds Model Law is used in problems where viscous
forces are dominant. These problems include:
Pipe Flow
Resistance experienced by submarines, airplanes, fully immersed
bodies etc.
( ) ( )
Re Re
1
: , ,
m m P P
P m
P m
P P r r
r
P
m m
m
P P P
r r r
m m m
V L V L
or
V L V L
V L
V L
where V L
V L
u u
u
u
u
u
u
u
= =
= =
| |
|
\ .
= = =
Reynolds Model Law
The Various Ratios for Reynoldss Law are obtained as
r
r
r
P P P r
m m m r
P P
r
m m
2
r
r
sin /
Velocity Ratio: V =
L
T L /V L
Time Ratio: Tr=
T L /V V
V / Vr
Acceleration Ratio: a =
V / Tr
Discharge Ratio: Q
Force Ratio: F =
P m
m P P
m P m
P
m
P P
r r
m m
VL VL
ce and
L V
V L
a T
a T
A V
L V
A V
m
u
u u
u u
u
| | | |
= =
| |
\ . \ .
= =
= =
= =
= =
2 2 2
2 2 2 3
r r r
Power Ratio: P =F.V =
r r r r r r r r r r r r
r r r r r r r
a QV L VV L V
L V V L V


= = =
=
Reynolds Model Law
Q. A pipe of diameter 1.5 m is required to transport an oil of specific
gravity 0.90 and viscosity 3x10
-2
poise at the rate of 3000litre/sec.
Tests were conducted on a 15 cm diameter pipe using water at 20
o
C.
Find the velocity and rate of flow in the model.
p p p p p
m m m
m m
2
2
p 2
For pipe flow,
According to Reynolds' Model Law
V D D
V D
D
900 1.5 1 10
3.0
1000 0.15 3 10
3.0
Since V
/ 4(1.5)
1.697 /
3.0 5.091 /
5.
m m
m p p p
m
p
p
p
m p
m m m
V
V
V
V
Q
A
m s
V V m s
and Q V A



t

= =

= =

= =
=
= =
= =
2
3
091 / 4(0.15)
0.0899 / m s
t
=
Solution:
Prototype Data:
Diameter, D
p
= 1.5m
Viscosity of fluid,
p
= 3x10
-2
poise
Discharge, Q
p
=3000litre/sec
Sp. Gr., S
p
=0.9
Density of oil=
p
=0.9x1000
=900kg/m
3
Model Data:
Diameter, Dm=15cm =0.15 m
Viscosity of water,
m
=1x10
-2
poise
Density of water,
m
=1000kg/m
3

Velocity of flow V
m
=?
Discharge Q
m
=?

Froudes Model Law
It is based on Froudes number and states that Froudes
number for model must be equal to the Froudes number
for prototype.
Froudes Model Law is used in problems where gravity
forces is only dominant to control flow in addition to inertia
force. These problems include:
Free surface flows such as flow over spillways, weirs, sluices,
channels etc.
Flow of jet from orifice or nozzle
Waves on surface of fluid
Motion of fluids with different viscosities over one another
( ) ( )
e e
/ 1; : ,
m m P P
P m
P P m m P m
P P P
r r r r
m m
P
m
m
V V V V
F F or or
g L g L L L
V V L
V L where V L
V L
L
V
L
= = =
= = = =
| |
|
\ .
Froudes Model Law
The Various Ratios for Reynoldss Law are obtained as
r
P P P r
m m m
P P
r
m m
2 2 5/ 2
r
sin
Velocity Ratio: V
T L /V L
Time Ratio: Tr=
T L /V
V / Vr
Acceleration Ratio: a = 1
V / Tr
Discharge Ratio: Q
Force Ratio: Fr=
m P
P m
p
P
r
m m
r
r
r
P
m
r
P P
r r r r r
m m
r r
V V
ce
L L
L
V
L
V L
L
L
L
a T
a T
L
A V
L V L L L
A V
m a
=
= = =
= = =
= = = =
= = = =
=
( )
2 2 2 2 3
3
2 2 2 3 2 7/ 2
Power Ratio: Pr=Fr.Vr=
r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r
r r r r r r r r r r r r
QV L V V L V L L L
L V V L V L L L


= = = =
= = =
Froudes Model Law
Q. In the model test of a spillway the discharge and velocity of flow
over the model were 2 m
3
/s and 1.5 m/s respectively. Calculate the
velocity and discharge over the prototype which is 36 times the model
size.
( ) ( )
( )
2.5 2.5
p
m
2.5
3
For Discharge
Q
36
Q
36 2 15552 / sec
r
p
L
Q m
= =
= =
p
m
For Dynamic Similarity,
Froude Model Law is used
V
36 6
V
6 1.5 9 / sec
r
p
L
V m
= = =
= =
Solution: Given that

For Model
Discharge over model, Q
m
=2 m
3
/sec
Velocity over model, V
m
= 1.5 m/sec
Linear Scale ratio, L
r
=36

For Prototype
Discharge over prototype, Q
p
=?
Velocity over prototype V
p
=?
Numerical Problem:
Q. The characteristics of the spillway are to be studied by means of a geometrically
similar model constructed to a scale of 1:10.
(i) If 28.3 cumecs, is the maximum rate of flow in prototype, what will be the
corresponding flow in model?
(i) If 2.4m/sec, 50mm and 3.5 Nm are values of velocity at a point on the spillway, height
of hydraulic jump and energy dissipated per second in model, what will be the
corresponding velocity height of hydraulic jump and energy dissipation per second in
prototype?
Solution: Given that
For Model
Discharge over model, Q
m
=?
Velocity over model, V
m
= 2.4 m/sec
Height of hydraulic jump, H
m
=50 mm
Energy dissipation per second, E
m
=3.5 Nm
Linear Scale ratio, L
r
=10
For Prototype
Discharge over model, Q
p
=28.3 m
3
/sec
Velocity over model, V
p
=?
Height of hydraulic jump, H
p
=?
Energy dissipation per second, E
p
=?
Froudes Model Law
p 2.5 2.5
m
2.5 3
p
m
For Discharge:
Q
10
Q
28.3/10 0.0895 / sec
For Velocity:
V
10
V
2.4 10 7.589 / sec
r
m
r
p
L
Q m
L
V m
= =
= =
= =
= =
p
m
p 3.5 3.5
m
3.5
For Hydraulic Jump:
H
10
H
50 10 500
For Energy Dissipation:
E
10
E
3.5 10 11067.9 / sec
r
p
r
p
L
H mm
L
E Nm
= =
= =
= =
= =
Classification of Models
Undistorted or True Models: are those which are
geometrically similar to prototype or in other words if the scale ratio
for linear dimensions of the model and its prototype is same, the
models is called undistorted model. The behavior of prototype can
be easily predicted from the results of undistorted or true model.
Undistorted Models: A model is said to be distorted if it is not
geometrically similar to its prototype. For distorted models different
scale ratios for linear dimension are used.
For example, if for the river, both horizontal and vertical scale ratio
are taken to be same, then depth of water in the model of river will
be very very small which may not be measured accurately.
The followings are the advantages of distorted models
The vertical dimension of the model can be accurately measured
The cost of the model can be reduced
Turbulent flow in the model can be maintained
Though there are some advantage of distorted models, however the
results of such models cannot be directly transferred to prototype.
Classification of Models
Scale Ratios for Distorted Models
( )
( )
( )
r
r
P
P
Let: L = Scale ratio for horizontal direction
L =Scale ratio for vertical direction
2
Scale Ratio for Velocity: Vr=V /
2
Scale Ratio for area of flow: Ar=A /
P P
H
m m
P
V
m
P
m r
V
m
P P
m
m m
L B
L B
h
h
gh
V L
gh
B h
A
B h
=
=
= =
= =
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
3/ 2
P
Scale Ratio for discharge: Qr=Q /
V
r r
H V
P P
m r r r r r
H V V H
m m
L L
A V
Q L L L L L
A V
= = =
Distorted model
Q. The discharge through a weir is 1.5 m3/s. Find the discharge
through the model of weir if the horizontal dimensions of the
model=1/50 the horizontal dimension of prototype and vertical
dimension of model =1/10 the vertical dimension of prototype.
( )
( )
( ) ( )
3
p
r
r
3/ 2
P
3/ 2
Solution:
Discharge of River= Q =1.5m /s
Scale ratio for horizontal direction= L =50
Scale ratio for vertical direction= L =10
Since Scale Ratio for discharge: Qr=Q /
/ 50 10
V
P
H
m
P
V
m
m r r
H
p m
L
L
h
h
Q L L
Q Q
=
=
=
=
3
1581.14
1.5/1581.14 0.000948 /
m
Q m s
=
= =
Distorted model
Q. A river model is to be constructed to a vertical scale of 1:50 and a
horizontal of 1:200. At the design flood discharge of 450m3/sec, the average
width and depth of flow are 60m and 4.2m respectively. Determine the
corresponding discharge in model and check the Reynolds Number of the
model flow.
( )
( )
( ) ( )
3
r
r
3/ 2
r P
3/ 2
arg 450 /
60 4.2
Horizontal scale ratio= L =200
Vertical scale ratio= L =50
Since Scale Ratio for discharge: Q =Q /
/ 200 50 7
V
p
p p
P
H
m
P
V
m
m r r
H
p m
Disch e of River Q m s
Width B m and Depth y m
B
B
y
y
Q L L
Q Q
= =
= = = =
=
=
=
= =
3 3
0710.7
450/1581.14 6.365 10 /
m
Q m s

= =
Distorted model
( )
( )
m
VL
Reynolds Number, Re =
4
/ 60/ 200 0.3
/ 4.2/ 50 0.084
0.3 0.084 0.0252
2 0.3 2 0.084 0.468
0.0252
0.05385
0.468
Kinematic Viscosity of w
m
m m
m p r
H
m p r
V
m m m
m m m
m
m
L R
Width B B L m
Depth y y L m
A B y m
P B y m
A
R
P
u
| |
|
\ .
=
= = = =
= = = =
= = =
= + = + =
= = =
6 2
6
ater = =1 10 / sec
4 4 0.253 0.05385
Re 54492.31
1 10
>2000
Flow is in turbulent range
m
m
VR
u
u

| | | |
= = =
| |

\ . \ .