Communication, Integration, and Homeostasis

Chapter 6
Chemical signals Signal transduction Homeostasis Feedback mechanisms
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Regulation and Control mediated by electrical and chemical signalling

z Electrical signals: Action Potentials
Nervous system Immediate and specific effects
y Action potentials are produced by neurons y Target cells respond to action potentials

Chemical signals
z Ligand: signaling molecule z Receptor: protein in or on a cell that binds the ligand z Ligand and receptor have complimentary 3-D shape
Lock and key model

z Target cell responds when a ligand binds to its receptor

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Four types of chemical signals

z Direct cytoplasmic exchange
Gap junctions allow many cells to act as one

z Contact dependent signaling z Local chemical signals

Autocrine: acts on secreting cell Paracrine: acts on other cells

z Signals that work at a distance: endocrine

Hormones are produced by endocrine tissue, secreted into blood, act on target tissue

Cytoplasmic Fig. 6-1a, pg. 176

Contact Dependent Fig. 6-1b

Autocrine & Paracrine Fig. 6-1c

Endocrine Fig. 6-1d

Only cells with receptors can respond to a particular ligand

Chemical signals also used in neuronal communication

z Neurotransmitters
z Neurohormones
Released from neurons, but act like hormones (in blood)
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Chemical signals are also used in neuronal communication

z Produced by neurons, act as either paracrine or endocrine

Neurotransmitter

Neurohormone
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Neurotransmitter

Cytokines
z Defined by function, rather than by mechanism z Can act both locally and at a distance z Control:
Development Differentiation Immune response (interleukins)
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Solubility of chemical signal (ligand) determines signal pathway

z Lipophilic (fat soluble) ligands bind receptors found inside cell z Lipophobic (water soluble) ligands bind surface membrane receptors z Cell must have appropriate receptor to respond to a ligand
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Fat soluble versus water soluble ligands

Fig. 6-3a, pg. 179

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Fat soluble ligands trigger response directly

z Bind to intracellular receptor z Receptor-ligand triggers cellular response:
Bind directly to DNA and triggers production of specific gene product, or protein
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Example: Steroid hormones are fat soluble

z Derived from cholesterol z Stimulate synthesis of specific proteins by activating gene

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Water soluble ligands bind to receptors on cell surface

z Binding triggers response across the membrane
Signal transduction

z Ligand never enters cell

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Signal Transduction

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How signal transduction pathways work

z The signal binds to membrane receptor z Receptor turns on enzymes that act as the transducer by:
Phosphorylation (protein kinases) Activation of second messenger systems

z Second messenger (cAMP) systems:

Open or close ion channels Increase intracellular Ca+2 Phosphorylate or dephosphorylate other proteins

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Examples of Membrane Receptors

Fig. 6-3c, pg. 179

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Fig. 6-5b, pg. 181

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Examples of how signal transduction pathways work (cont)

z The Response: proteins modified by Ca+2 binding or phosphorylation generally control
Metabolic enzymes Motor proteins (eg. Actin and myosin) Gene regulators Transport or receptor proteins

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Signal transduction pathways act in a cascade

z Intermediates circulate in inactive form z Activation of one intermediate results in the activation of the next Fig. 6-6a, pg. 182

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Cascades amplify the signal

z Each step multiplies the effect
z Small amounts of ligand can produce a large response

See fig. 6-6b, pg. 182

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Common signal transduction "themes"

z Phosphorylation used to activate or deactivate proteins
Kinases add phosphate groups Phosphatases remove phosphate groups

z Cyclic nucleotides used as second messengers

cAMP, cGMP

z Cascades used to amplify signal

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Fig. 6.10, pg. 186

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Modulation of Signal Pathways

z One signal (the ligand) can have multiple receptors
Produces different effects in different tissues

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One ligand, multiple receptors

Fig. 6-13 pg. 190

a-receptor causes vasoconstriction -receptor causes vasodilation

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Modulation of Signal Pathways (cont.)

One receptor can have multiple ligands
Specificity: the multiple ligands have similar shape Competition: only one ligand can bind at a time Saturation

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One receptor, multiple ligands

Agonists mimic ligand, produce same response
Birth control pills

Antagonists block ligand, block response

-blockers Fig. 6-14, pg. 190
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Tonic control: up or down, not on or off

Fig. 6-15a pg. 193

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Antagonistic control: regulators have opposite effects

Fig. 6-15b pg. 193

Parasympathetic

Sympathetic

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Reflex pathways act at a distance, require communication between the regulator and the effector
Negative Feedback
Fig. 6.16, pg. 194
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Reflex pathways regulate & maintain homeostasis

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Differences between control systems: Nervous System v. Endocrine

Specificity Type of signal Speed Duration of action Stimulus intensity
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Fig. 6.18, pg. 197

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