Different Types of Load and Fatigue Failure

Dr. Sanjay Chikalthankar Dept. of Mech.
Engineering, GECA
dr
Dr .SANJAY CHIKALTHANKAR
6/6/2013
INTRODUCTION :When a component is subject to increasing loads it eventually fails. It is comparatively easy to determine the point of failure of a component subject to a single tensile force. The strength data on the material identifies this strength. However when the material is subject to a number of loads in different directions some of which are tensile and some of which are shear, then the determination of the point of failure is more complicated.
Dr SANJAY CHIKALTHANKAR 6/6/2013 2
TYPES OF LOADS:STATIC
LOAD 1) AXIAL LOAD 2) BENDING LOAD 3) TORTIONAL LOAD DYNAMIC LOAD

FLUCTUATING
LOAD
1) TESILE MEAN LOAD 2) COMPRESSIVE MEAN
LOAD
3) REPEATETED LOAD SUDDENLY APPLIED LOAD IMPACT LOAD FATIGUE LOAD

Dr SANJAY CHIKALTHANKAR
6/6/2013
1) AXIAL LOAD :Uniform and Prismatic(straight) bar,rod,tube etc. Homogenous material. Load P directed axially along the centroidal axis of cross section. Elastic loading
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Bending moment :
Uniform prismatic beam (L > 10 b). deflection
Carries load that produce perpendicular to its longitudal axis.

Bending relative to principal axis only Linear elastic material.
Applicable to small deflection and as long as deflection is in circular arc, ie. d2v/dx2 is a good approximation of the beam curvature.
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Torsional load :Prismatic
& circular (solid or hollow but thick) Torsional member
Homogenous material
Sections at which torques are applied are remote from ends.
Angle of twist is small.
DYNAMIC LOAD :Loads
that vary during normal service of the product produce dynamic stress. Dynamic stress can be cyclic or random. High cycle fatigue part subject to millions of stress cycles.
Cyclic loads produce cyclic stress which can lead to mechanical fatigue failure
Fluctuating load :Tensile mean stress (can cycle between tension and compression or all tension) Compressive mean stress (can cycle between tension and compression or all compression) Repeated, one-direction stress
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TESILE MEAN LOAD :-
Advantageous to define briefly the general types of fluctuating stresses which can cause fatigue.
Maximum and minimum stresses are equal Minimum stress is the lowest algebraic stress in the cycle. Tensile stress is positive , compressive stress is negative.
smax is tensile and smin is compressive 6/6/2013
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Compressive mean stress :Maximum and minimum stresses are not equal Repeated stress cycle contains maximum and minimum stresses of opposite sign.
smax is tensile and smin is compressive

Repeated, one-direction load :Airplane structures are subjected repeated loads, called cyclic loads, and the resulting cyclic stresses can lead to microscopic physical damage to the materials involved. Even at stresses well below the material's ultimate strength, this damage can accumulate with continued cycling until it develops into a crack or other damage that leads to failure of the component. The process of accumulating damage and finally to failure due to cyclic loading is called fatigue. An insidious cause of loss of strength.
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IMPACT LOAD :A common type of structural analysis results from an impact load. The impact should be caused by a weight falling on the design object falling and striking a hard surface.
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FATIGUE LOAD :-
Fatigue loading is primarily the type of loading which causes cyclic variations in the applied stress or strain on a component. Thus any variable loading is basically a fatigue loading . Fatigue cracking is one of the primary damage mechanisms of structural components. Fatigue cracking results from cyclic stresses that are below the ultimate tensile stress, or even the yield stress of the material. The name fatigue is based on the concept that a material becomes tired and fails at a stress level below the nominal strength of the material. The facts that the original bulk design strengths are not exceeded and the only warning sign of an impending fracture is an often hard to see crack, makes fatigue damage especially dangerous.
WHAT IS FAILURE ? Ans:- Failure means a part which is permanently distorted and not function properly . And it is separated in two or more pieces, then it is said that part under failure. There are numbers of machine components, which is subjected to several types of loads simultaneously. For example, a power screw subjected to torsional moment as well as axial force. Crank shaft, propeller shaft and connecting rod are examples of component subjected to complex loads.
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The failures of such component are broadly classified into two groups- elastic failure and yielding failure . Elastic failure results in excessive deformation, which makes the component unfit to its function satisfactorily yielding result in excessive plastic deformation after the yield point stress is reached, while fracture results in breaking he component into two or more pieces.
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OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE
In this module we will be discussing on design aspects related to fatigue failure, an important mode of failure in engineering components. Fatigue failure results mainly due to variable loading or more precisely due to cyclic variations in the applied loading or induced stresses So starting from the basic concepts of variable (non-static) loading, we will be discussing in detail how it leads to fatigue failure in components, what factors influence them, how to account them and finally how to design parts or components to resist failure by fatigue Fatigue is a phenomenon associated with variable loading or more precisely to cyclic stressing or straining of a material. Just as we human beings get fatigue when a specific task is repeatedly performed, in a similar manner metallic components subjected to variable loading get fatigue, which leads to their premature failure under specific conditions
WHAT IS FATIGUE?
Fatigue Failure
Often machine members subjected to such repeated or cyclic stressing are found to have failed even when the actual maximum stresses were below the ultimate strength of the material, and quite frequently at stress values even below the yield strength. The most distinguishing characteristics is that the failure had occurred only after the stresses have been repeated a very large number of times. Hence the failure is called fatigue failure. ASTM Definition of fatigue The process of progressive localized permanent structural changes occurring in a material subjected to conditions that produce fluctuating stresses at some point or points and that may culminate in cracks or complete fracture after a sufficient number of fluctuations. Let us first make an attempt to understand the basic mechanism of fatigue failure
Fatigue Failure- Mechanism
A fatigue failure begins with a small crack; the initial crack may be so minute and can not be detected. The crack usually develops at a point of localized stress concentration like discontinuity in the material, such as a change in cross section, a keyway or a hole. Once a crack is initiated, the stress concentration effect become greater and the crack propagates. Consequently the stressed area decreases in size, the stress increase in magnitude and the crack propagates more rapidly. Until finally, the remaining area is unable to sustain the load and the component fails suddenly. Thus fatigue loading results in sudden, unwarned failure.
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Fatigue Failure Stages

Thus three stages are involved in fatigue failure namely -Crack initiation -Crack propagation -Fracture Crack initiation
Areas of localized stress concentrations such as fillets, notches, key ways, bolt holes and even scratches or tool marks are potential zones for crack initiation. Crack also generally originate from a geometrical discontinuity or metallurgical stress raiser like sites of inclusions As a result of the local stress concentrations at these locations, the induced stress goes above the yield strength (in normal ductile materials) and cyclic plastic straining results due to cyclic variations in the stresses. On a macro scale the average value of the induced stress might still be below the yield strength of the material. During plastic straining slip occurs and (dislocation movements) results in gliding of planes one over the other. During the cyclic stressing, slip saturation results which makes further plastic deformation difficult. Machine Design II Indian Institute of Technology Madras As a consequence, intrusion and extrusion occurs creating a notch like discontinuity in the material.
Crack propagation
This further increases the stress levels and
the process continues, propagating the cracks across the grains or along the grain boundaries, slowly increasing the crack size. As the size of the crack increases the cross sectional area resisting the applied stress decreases and reaches a thresh hold level at which it is insufficient to resist the applied stress.
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Final fracture
resist the induced stresses any further a sudden fracture results in the component
As the area becomes too insufficient to
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The micro mechanism of fatigue fracture :Cause:Material body Effect :Cyclic stress
Atomic
1.Dislocation movements 2.Dislocation multiplication 3.Defect interaction 4.Cross slip
Microscopic
1. Slip formation 2. Slip saturation 3. Structure deterioration 4. Extrusion intrusion 5. Engergy changes 6. Crack nucleation and growth Crystallographically
Microscopic
1.Stable stages 2.Unstable stages 3.Critical length 4.Final fracture
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Fatigue Properties
Fatigue cracking is one of the primary damage mechanisms of structural components. Fatigue cracking results from cyclic stresses that are below the ultimate tensile stress, or even the yield stress of the material. The name fatigue is based on the concept that a material becomes tired and fails at a stress level below the nominal strength of the material. The facts that the original bulk design strengths are not exceeded and the only warning sign of an impending fracture is an often hard to see crack, makes fatigue damage especially dangerous. The fatigue life of a component can be expressed as the number of loading cycles required to initiate a fatigue crack and to propagate the crack to critical size. Therefore, it can be said that fatigue failure occurs in three stages crack initiation; slow, stable crack growth; and rapid fracture. As discussed previously, dislocations play a major role in the fatigue crack initiation phase. In the first stage, dislocations accumulate near surface stress concentrations and form structures called persistent slip bands (PSB) after a large number of loading cycles. PSBs are areas that rise above (extrusion) or fall below (intrusion) the surface of the component due to movement of material along slip planes. This leaves tiny steps in the surface that serve as stress risers where tiny cracks can initiate. These tiny crack (called microcracks nucleate along planes of high shear stress which is often 45o to the loading direction. In the second stage of fatigue, some of the tiny microcracks join together and begin to propagate through the material in a direction that is perpendicular to the maximum tensile stress. Eventually, the growth of one or a few crack of the larger cracks will dominate over the rest of the cracks. With continued cyclic loading, the growth of the dominate crack or cracks will continue until the remaining uncracked section of the component can no longer support the load. At this point, the fracture toughness is exceeded and the remaining cross-section of the material experiences rapid fracture. This rapid overload fracture is the third stage of fatigue failure.
Fatigue phenomena
Fatigue failure occurs when metal is subjected to a repetitive or fluctuating stress and will fail at a stress much lower than its tensile strength. Fatigue failures occur without any plastic deformation. Basic factors necessary to cause fatigue failure. Maximum tensile stress of sufficiently high value. A large enough variation or fluctuation in the applied stress. A sufficiently large Number of cycles of the applied stress.
Additional factors to cause fatigue failure. Stress concentration Corrosion Temperature Overload Residual stresses Combined stresses
Stress cycles :-
Advantageous to define briefly the general types of fluctuating stresses which can cause fatigue. Maximum and minimum stresses are equal Minimum stress is the lowest algebraic stress in the cycle. Tensile stress is positive , compressive stress is negative.
Stress
cycles :-
Maximum and minimum stresses are not equal Repeated stress cycle contains maximum and minimum stresses of opposite sign.
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Stress cycles :-
Complicated stress cycle Encounter in a part such as an aircraft wing which is subjected to periodic unpredictable overloads.
The S-N curve

The
method of presenting engineering fatigue data is by means of the S-N Curve. Life of specimen is given by N Number of cycles of failure Maximum applied stress
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The S-N curve

Procedure for determining S-N Curve. Testing of 1st Specimen at high stress where failure is expected to occur in fairly short Number of cycles. Stress is decreased for each succeeding specimen until 1 or 2 specimens do not fail in the specified Number of cycles. 10 cycles. The highest stress at which a runout (non-failure) is obtained is taken as the fatigue limit. Materials without the fatigue limit the test is usually terminated at a low stress where the life is about 10 or 5 x 10 cycles. The S-N Curve is usually determined with about 8 to 12 specimens.
Statistical nature of fatigue
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Stress life method -- plots of alternating stress, S, vs. cycles to failure, N.

ignores
true stress and strain (assumes elastic strains) which may be significant since initiation of fatigue cracks is plastic deformation stress life methods should not be used to estimate lives below 1000 cycles
Endurance Limit: stress for which material has "infinite" life (> 1x106 cycles)
existence
due to interstitial elements (pin dislocations and prevent slip) can disappear due to periodic overloads, corrosive environments or high temperatures Most nonferrous alloys do not exhibit endurance limit (some use value at 5x108 cycles or some other number much higher than the design life)
Endurance
survive for a given number of load cycles. Endurance limit is the stress level that a material can survive for an infinite number of load cycles. Estimate for Wrought Steel: Endurance Strength = 0.50(Su) Most nonferrous metals (aluminum) do not have an endurance limit
strength is the stress level that a material can
Endurance
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Fatigue Testing
Bending
tests Sontag = Constant stress cantilever beams

Good for flat stock (sheets) Get shear stress in addition to bending stress.
Top View
Specimen
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Fatigue Testing
S tr e s s, s ( k si )
Number of Cycles to Failure, N Dr SANJAY CHIKALTHANKAR 6/6/2013
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Representative Endurance Strengths
Estimated endurance strength of steel is about 0.50 * Su
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Factors Effecting for Metal Fatigue
A number of variables can have a significant impact on fatigue, such as: Size. Larger components are more likely to have fatigue cracks initiate, due to larger volumes of material subject to high stresses, and due to a greater chance of residual stresses (inherent processing difficulty). Effects mainly seen at very long lives. Type of loading. Endurance limits vary by loading condition (axial, bending, torsion) Surface finish. Scratches, pits and machining marks add stress concentrations. Fine grained materials (high strength steel) more affected. Large effect, correction factors usually presented graphically
Surface treatments. Fatigue cracks initiate at free surface, treatments can be significant
Plating, thermal or mechanical means to induce residual stress Temperature.Compressive Endurance limits increase at low temperature (but residual stresses are beneficial, tension is detrimental Residual stresses not permanent, can be relaxed (temp., overload) fracture toughness decreases significantly)
Endurance limits disappear at high temperature Creep is important above 0.5Tm (plastic, stress-life not valid)
Environment. Corrosion has complex interactive effect with fatigue (attacks surface and creates brittle oxide film, which cracks and pits to cause stress concentrations)
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Surface Finish (Qualitative and quantitative descriptions of surface roughness)
The condition of the surface is more important for high strength materials Residual surface stresses can be important (e.g. grinding = residual tension) Condition of surface at shorter lives dominated by crack propagation (surface condition less of an effect) Localized surface irregularities (e.g. stamping) can be high stress concentration
J.A. Bannantine, J.J. Comer and J.L. Handrock. Fundamentals of Metal Fatigue Analysis. Prentice-Hall, 1990.
Surface Treatment -- Review of Residual Stresses
Surface Treatment -- Plating
Surface Treatment -- Plating
General trends for chrome and nickel plating:
Surface Treatment -- Thermal

Various heat treatment process (e.g. nitriding, carburizing) can produce higher strength materials at the surface which significantly improves fatigue life
Surface Treatment -- Thermal

Certain processing operations can have reverse effect. For example, hot rolling and forging can cause decarburization (loss of surface carbon atoms), which is very detrimental to fatigue life.
Surface Treatment -- Mechanical

Two most important methods: Cold Rolling and Shot Peening
Cold Rolling
Steel rollers pressed to surface of component as it is rotated in a lathe Used on large parts Can produce deep residual stress layer
Surface Treatment -- Mechanical

Two most important methods: Cold Rolling and Shot Peening
Shot Peening
Surface of component blasted with high velocity steel or glass beads Core of material in residual tension, surface in residual compression Easily used on odd shaped parts, but leaves surface dimpling
Shot peening can be used to undo deleterious effects of plating, decarburization, corrosion and grinding
Environmental Effects
Fatigue Design Guideline

Consider actual stresses, including stress concentrations, rather than to nominal average stresses. 2. Visualize load transfer from one part or section to another and the distortions that occur during loading to locate points of high stress 3. Avoid adding or attaching secondary brackets, fittings, handles, steps, bosses, grooves, and openings at locations of high stress 4. Use gradual changes in section and symmetry of design to reduce secondary flexure
5. Consider location and types of joints (frequent cause of fatigue problem6. Use double shear joints when possible
7. Do noy use rivets for carrying repeated tensile loads (bolts superior) 8. Avoid open and loosely filled holes
1.
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Fatigue Design Guideline

9. Consider fabrication methods, specify strict requirements when needed 10. Choose proper surface finishes, but not overly severe (rivet holes, welds, openings etc. may be larger drivers) 11. Provide suitable protection against corrosion 12. Avoid metallic plating with widely different properties than underlying material 13. Consider prestressing when feasible, to include shot peening and cold working 14. Consider maintenance, to include inspections, and protection against corrosion, wear, abuse, overheating, and repeated overloading 15. Avoid use of structures at critical or fundamental frequency of individual parts or of the structure as a whole (induces many cycles of relatively high stress) 16. Consider temperature effectsDr SANJAY CHIKALTHANKAR 6/6/2013
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Basic features of failure appearance :-
A fatigue failure, therefore, is characterized by two distinct regions. The first of these is due to progressive development of the crack, while the second is due to the sudden fracture. The zone of sudden fracture is very similar in appearance to the fracture of a brittle material, such as cast iron, that has failed in tension. The crack propagation zone could be distinguished from a polished appearance. A careful examination (by an experienced person) of the failed cross section could also reveal the site of crack origin
Dr. Sanjay Chikalthankar Dept. of Mech. Engineering, GECA
6/6/2013
53

Different Types of Load and Fatigue Failure

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Different Types of Load and Fatigue Failure

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Dr. Sanjay Chikalthankar Dept. of Mech.

LOAD 1) AXIAL LOAD 2) BENDING LOAD 3) TORTIONAL LOAD DYNAMIC LOAD

1) TESILE MEAN LOAD 2) COMPRESSIVE MEAN

3) REPEATETED LOAD SUDDENLY APPLIED LOAD IMPACT LOAD FATIGUE LOAD

Uniform prismatic beam (L > 10 b). deflection

Carries load that produce perpendicular to its longitudal axis.

Bending relative to principal axis only Linear elastic material.

Torsional load :Prismatic

& circular (solid or hollow but thick) Torsional member

Sections at which torques are applied are remote from ends.

Angle of twist is small.

Dr SANJAY CHIKALTHANKAR 6/6/2013 7

DYNAMIC LOAD :Loads

TESILE MEAN LOAD :-

smax is tensile and smin is compressive 6/6/2013

smax is tensile and smin is compressive

OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE

Fatigue Failure- Mechanism

Fatigue Failure Stages

This further increases the stress levels and

As the area becomes too insufficient to

The S-N curve

The S-N curve

Statistical nature of fatigue

Stress life method -- plots of alternating stress, S, vs. cycles to failure, N.

strength is the stress level that a material can

tests Sontag = Constant stress cantilever beams

Number of Cycles to Failure, N Dr SANJAY CHIKALTHANKAR 6/6/2013

Representative Endurance Strengths

Estimated endurance strength of steel is about 0.50 * Su

Factors Effecting for Metal Fatigue

Surface Finish (Qualitative and quantitative descriptions of surface roughness)

Surface Treatment -- Review of Residual Stresses

Surface Treatment -- Plating

Surface Treatment -- Plating

General trends for chrome and nickel plating:

Surface Treatment -- Thermal

Surface Treatment -- Thermal

Surface Treatment -- Mechanical

Surface Treatment -- Mechanical

Fatigue Design Guideline

Fatigue Design Guideline

Basic features of failure appearance :-

Dr. Sanjay Chikalthankar Dept. of Mech. Engineering, GECA

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