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- 350 -

Material Removal Processes


Single Point Processes
ME350 - Design For
Manufacture (DFM)


Dr. Mike L. Philpott
Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering,
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
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F
t
F
C
F
r
DIRECTION OF ROTATION
WORKPIECE
CUTTING TOOL
DIRECTION OF FEED
Velocity of
Tool relative to
workpiece V
Longitudinal
'Thrust' Force (27%)
Radial
Force (6%)
Tangential 'Cutting' Force (67%)
Turning Forces For Orthogonal Model
End view section 'A'-'A'
Note: For the 2D Orthogonal Mechanistic
Model we will ignore the radial component
F
t
'A'
'A'
c
F
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F
L
F
C
F
r
DIRECTION OF ROTATION
WORKPIECE
CUTTING TOOL
DIRECTION OF FEED
Velocity of
Tool relative to
workpiece V
Longitudinal Force
Radial Force
Thrust Force
Tangential Force
'Cutting' Force
Facing Forces For Orthogonal Model
End view
Note: For the 2D Orthogonal Mechanistic
Model we will ignore the Longitudinal
component
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'Turning' Terminology
N is the speed in rpm
D is the diameter of the
workpiece
f is the feed (linear
distance/rev)
d is the depth of cut
V is the surface speed
= tDN

Standard Terms
Beware, for turning: In the generalized
orthogonal model depth of cut (to) is f (the feed),
and width of cut (w) is d (the depth of cut)
N
| D
d mm
feed
(mm/rev)
Tool
Workpiece
rpm
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Tool Terminology
Side relief
angle
Side cutting

edge angle

(SCEA)
Clearance or end
relief angle
Back
Rake

(BR),+
Side Rake
(SR), +
End Cutting

edge angle

(ECEA)
Nose
Radius
Turning
Cutting
edge
Facing
Cutting
edge
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Cutting Tools (1)

1. Carbon and Medium alloy steels - limited to low
speed operations (drills, shaping)
2. High Speed Steels (HSS) - most widely used, high
toughness for high +ve rake applications
3. Cast-Cobalt Alloys (Stellite tools) - sensitive to
impact but good for continuous deep roughing at
high speeds and feeds (2xHSS)
4. Tungsten carbide (TC) - composite manufactured by
powder-metallurgy techniques into 'inserts'
(disposable with a number of cutting points)
5. Titanium Carbide - higher wear resistance and
suitable for machining hard materials at higher
speeds than Tungsten carbide

Tool cost
Wear resistance
Hardness
Cutting Speeds
Surface finish
Accuracy

Increase
- 350 -

Cutting Tools (2)

6. Coated Tools - have reduced cutting times by 4,
typically Titanium nitride, carbide, or ceramics
sometimes in multiple coatings on TC inserts
(chemical inertness often important)
7. Ceramic Tools - typically aluminium oxide, have
high abrasion resistance and hardness but lack
toughness (suitable for uninterrupted finishing cuts)
8. Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN) - 0.5 to 1mm CBN piece
is added to TC insert, very hard material suitable
for hardened ferrous and high-temperature alloys
9. Diamond - hardest of all known materials, but very
brittle, used mainly for aluminium and copper-front
mirrors - excellent surface finish and accuracy
Tool cost
Wear resistance
Hardness
Cutting Speeds
Surface finish
Accuracy

Increase
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Turning
Estimating Cutting Power, Torque,
and Cutting Force from Unit Power

For a given material the average unit power (or specific cutting
energy Ut ) may be used, :


and as Power = Torque T x Speed e (rads/sec)

Torque T =
P
c
2tN
, and as Torque = Force x Distance
Cutting Power P
c
= U
t
(tD
avg
Nfd)
U
t
=
Cutting Power (P
c
)
Material Removal Rate (MRR)
=
P
c
tD
avg
Nfd
Cutting Force F
c
=
2T
D
avg
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Facing
Estimating Cutting Power, Torque,
and Cutting Force from Unit Power

and as Power = Torque T x Speed e (rads/sec)

Torque T =
P
c
2tN
, and as Torque = Force x Distance
U
t
=
C u t t i n g P o w e r ( P
c
)
M a t e r i a l R e m o v a l R a t e ( M R R )
=
P
c
tD
T
Nfd
Cutting Power at Time T: P
c
=
U
t
tD
T
Nfd
Cutting Force F
c
=
2 T
D
T
where D
T
is the diameter at time T;
- 350 -
Temperature in Cutting
Knowledge of the temperature rise in cutting is
important because it:

Adversely affects the strength, hardness, and
wear resistance of the tool
Causes dimensional changes in the part being
machined
Can induce thermal damage to the machined
surface, adversely affecting its properties
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Tool
Workpiece
Chip
Heat Generation Zones
(Dependent on sharpness
of tool)
(Dependent on )

(Dependent on |)

10%
30%
60%
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Cutting Temperature
(Empirical)
Temperature Increases
with increasing:
l Cutting Speed
l Depth of Cut (feed rate)
l Strength of workpiece
material

Where V = Cutting Velocity, f = feed rate
Mean Temperature

V
a
f
b
Temperature Decreases
with increasing:
l specific heat
l thermal conductivity

- 350 -
Cutting Fluids
(also called lubricants or coolants)
Cutting Fluids are used extensively in machining
operations to:

Cool the heat generation zones - particularly at high
speeds (tool properties degrade and workpiece distorts)
Reduce friction and wear, thus improving tool life and
surface finish
Reduce forces and energy consumption
Wash away the chips
Protect the newly machined surfaces from corrosion

Importance of cooling versus lubrication properties are
dependent on the process and surface speeds - effects
choice of lubricant.
- 350 -
Tool Wear, Failure and Life
Tool wear is generally a gradual process and depends on:
Cutting Temperatures
Tool geometry
Process parameters (e.g. speed, feed, and depth of cut)
Machine tool characteristics
Tool and workpiece materials
Cutting Fluids

Tool Failure generally refers to the sudden loss of tool
material and shape (e.g. chipping) and is caused by:
Mechanical shock - impact by interrupted cutting (e.g.
spline, hex. bar, sudden feed/speed change)
Thermal Fatigue - cyclic variations in temperature in
interrupted cutting, often in the form of thermal cracks,
perhaps where a defect already exists.

- 350 -
Wear Mechanisms

1. Abrasion Wear - sliding of the chip on the tool, sliding of
the tool on the workpiece
2. Adhesion Wear - Plastic deformation and friction
associated with high temperatures cause a welding action,
fractures of the weld cause tool degeneration
3. Diffusion wear - Displacement of atoms in the metallic
crystal results in gradual deformation of the tool surface
4. Chemical and Electrolytic Wear - chemical reaction
between the tool and the workpiece in the presence of the
cutting fluid
5. Oxidation Wear - At high temperatures oxidation of the
carbide in the cutting tool decreases its strength
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Wear Regions
Flank Wear: Takes place on the relief face and
attributed to largely to Abrasion and Adhesion wear
mechanisms
Crater Wear: Takes place on the rake face face and due
largely to Abrasion, Adhesion and Diffusion wear
mechanisms
p
p
Tool
Workpiece
Chip
Crater Wear
(Tool-Chip)
Flank Wear
(Tool-Workpiece)
Rake
Face
Relief
Face
- 350 -

Wear Regions
(Showing Flank Wear Land VB)
p Nose Radius Wear: Partially a continuation of the
flank wear but includes grooves spaced at a distance
equal to the feed
p Outer Diameter Notch Wear: Groove notch usually
deeper than flank wear but not as critical
Depth
of Cut
r
n
3-D view of
Single Point
Tool
Nose
Wear
Flank
Wear
Notch
Wear
Crater
Wear
Wear Land-Wear Scar
Flank
Face
Rake
Face
Nose
Radius
VB
- 350 -
Taylor's Tool Life Model
(Empirical)
Classical F. W. Taylor's Tool Life Model (circa. 1907):


VT
n
= C
Where V = Cutting Speed
T = Time to develop a certain wear land (VB)
n = Taylor's Exponent
C = Taylor's Constant (V for 1 min life)

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Extended Tool Life Model


Although cutting speed has been found to be the most
significant process variable in tool life, depth of cut and feed
rate are also important:



where f = feed rate
d = depth of cut
V = Cutting Velocity
C, n, x, y = Constants found by experiment
VT
n
d
x
f
y
= C
Tool Life, T = C
1/n
V
-1/n
d
-x/n
f
-y/n
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Allowable Wear Land and
Recommended Cutting Speed
The Allowable Wear Land (VB) is the amount of wear
beyond which the quality of cut is unacceptable or the
forces increase by too much: (Table 20.3, p. 621)
Operation High-speed steels Carbides
Turning 1.5 mm 0.4 mm
Face Milling 1.5 mm 0.4 mm
End Milling 0.3 mm 0.3 mm
Drilling 0.4 mm 0.4 mm
Reaming 0.15 mm 0.15 mm
Recommended Cutting Speed (V) is generally one
that gives an acceptable tool life:
Typically for HSS : Tool life = 60-120 min.
For Carbide Tools: Tool life = 30-60 min. are chosen
- 350 -
Vibration and Chatter

Vibration and chatter during cutting is a common cause of :

Poor surface finish
Loss of dimensional accuracy of the workpiece
Premature wear, chipping, and failure of the cutting tool
(particularly with brittle tool materials such as ceramics
and diamonds)
Damage to machine-tool components from excessive
vibrations
Objectionable noise generated, particularly if it is a high
frequency
- 350 -
Reducing Vibration and Chatter
p Minimize tool Overhang
p Support workpiece and tool rigidly
p Modify tool and cutter geometry
p Change process parameters, such as V, f, d, and coolant
p Increase the stiffness of the machine tool and its
components (larger cross-sections and higher modulus)
p Improve the damping capacity of the machine

- 350 -
Surface Finish in Turning

In turning, as in other cutting operations, the tool leaves a
spiral profile - feed marks - on the machined surface as it
moves across the workpiece:
The higher the feed f, and the smaller the nose
radius , the more prominent these marks will be.
Finished
Workpiece
Surface
Uncut
Workpiece
Surface
feed rate, f
Single Point Tool
(with nose radius)
- 350 -
Surface Characterization in General
A 3 D surface or surface profile may be decomposed into
several components:

p Surface Roughness - (amplitude < 0.2 m) - produced by
the chip formation mechanism, non-roundness of tool
nose radius, etc

p Waviness - (amplitude 0.2 m to 25 m) - formed by the
geometry of the cutting process, i.e., feed, nose radius,
ECEA, and SCEA.

p Surface Error / Error of form - (amplitude 10 m to 150
m) - due to compliance inherent with any cutting system
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Surface Finish Measures
Roughness Average Ra (or CLA)
Characterizes the average deviation of the profile from the
center line (CL) - where by definition of equal areas:
CL =
1
L
h(x) dx
0
L
R
a
=
1
L
h(x) - CL dx
0
L
and
x
Distance
h(x)
Height
L
area1
area2
CL
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Surface Finish Measures
Peak-to-Valley (Rt )
The height differential between a peak and valley.
Normally as an average but sometimes quoted as max.


Root-Mean-Square - RMS (Rq)
Also characterizes the average deviation of the profile
from the center line (CL):
R
q
=
1
L
(h(x) - CL)
2
dx
0
L
Rq is generally 10%-20% larger than the Ra as it tends
to penalize the large deviations from the center line
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Surface Finish Model for Turning
Zero Nose Radius
Distance between peaks equals
feed f (distance in 1 rev.)
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Peak-To-Valley (Rt)
and
x (1 + tan(ECEA) tan(SCEA)) = f tan(SCEA) tan(ECEA)
SCEA
ECEA
f
y
x f-x
tan (ECEA ) =
y
f -x
tan (SCEA ) =
x
y

y = R
t
=
f tan (ECEA )
(1 + tan (ECEA) tan (SCEA ))
- 350 -
Roughness Average R
For a triangular waved surface: CL = R /2
R
a
=
Area A + Area B
Sampling length
x
h(x)
A
B
t
R
a
=
1
2

f
2

R
t
2
+
1
2

f
2

R
t
2
f
R
a
=
R
t
4
a
- 350 -

A mechanistic model procedure may be used for the
scalloped surface left by a radiused tool, but it is more
complex, and therefore often approximated with:

Boothroyd's classical empirical model:
Where f is the feed and r is the nose radius ( in inch units)
n
R
a
=
0.0321 f
2
r
n
Surface Finish Model for Turning
Non -Zero Nose Radius

- 350 -

Mechanistic Nose
Radius Model
Using a coordinate transformation, we have:
x = r
n
sin u
y = r
n
- r
n
cos u
So, the center line average, c, is first calculated by integrating,
to yield:

r
n
f
r
n
c =
CLA
u
C
u
f
f/2
Cutter
R
t
Tool Profile
- 350 -

where
u
f
= sin
-1
(f / 2r
n
) and then:
where
c = 1/ u
f
r
n
0
u
f
}
r
n
cos u)du




`
)
c = r
n
1 (sin u
f
/ u
f
)
{ }
R
a
= 1/ u
f
(c r
n
+
0
u
c
}
r cosu)du + (
u
c
u
f
}
r
n
r
n
cosu c)du






`

)

R
a
= 1/ u
f
2cu
c
2Ru
c
+2Rsin u
c
+ Ru
f
Rsin u
f
cu
f
{ }
u
c
= cos
1
(1 c / r
n
)
Mechanistic Nose
Radius Model
(cont.)
- 350 -

r
n
f
f/2
Tool Profile
r
n
r
n f /4
-
2 2
r
t
R
t
= r
n
r
n
2

f
2
4
Mechanistic Nose
Radius Model
(cont.)
Peak-to-Valley
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Planing and
Shaping Modeling
(Use orthogonal Model)
p In Planing the workpiece is mounted on a table that
reciprocates along a straight path. The tool is fixed to a head
that indexes a small distance (feed), normal to the direction of
travel, after each stroke.

p In Shaping the tool reciprocates whilst the workpiece
indexes normal to the direction of travel after each stroke

In both cases cutting is usually in only one direction with the
tool tilted out of the way during the return stroke.
Workpiece
Tool
- 350 -
Shaping and Planing
Typical Parameters
Planing:
Cutting Speeds: up to 2 m/s
Power capacities: 110 Kw (150 hp)
Feeds: 0.5 - 3 mm/stroke
Strokes: as large as 25m

Shaping:
Cutting speeds: 0.3 m/s (typical but some up to 2 m/s)
Return speeds: usually twice as fast
Power capacities: less than 15 Kw (20 hp) typically
Feeds: same as planing
Strokes : up to 1.2 m
Ram reciprocations: up to 150 per min. typically


- 350 -
Shaping & Planing Terminology
L
d
f
Tool
Workpiece
b
Chip
f = Incremental feed
(distance/pass)
d = depth of cut
b = part width
L = Part length
L' = L + % overstroke
V = Cutting Velocity
(distance/time)
Vr = Speed of return
stroke (dist./time)
Vf = Speed if indexing
stroke (dist./time)
L' = L + % overstroke

Return Stroke
Cutting Stroke
Indexing Stroke
- 350 -

Shaping and Planing
CycleTimes
Cutting Time per pass = L'/V
Non-cutting Time per pass = L'/Vr + f/Vf
Time per pass = L'/V + L'/Vr + f/Vf
time
MRR
0
Cutting Period
Non-cutting
Period
Time/Pass
- 350 -
Shaping and Planing
Machining Time and MRR

Machining Time: tm = Np ( L'/V + L'/Vr + f/Vf)
Tool engagement time: te = Np (L/V)
Volume of material removed per pass = f x d x L
Number of passes per part: Np = b/f (round up)
Machining Time: tm = Np ( L'/V + L'/Vr + f/Vf)
Tool engagement time: te = Np (L/V)
Average MRR (overall productivity of the operation):
MRR
ave
=
Vol ume of Materi al Removed
Ti me to compl ete the operati on
=
b L d
t
m
- 350 -
Shaping and Planing
MRR and Total Power
MRR
max
= Cutting Velocity x feed x depth
MRR
max
= V f d
Power in Cutting = U
t
x MRR
max .
Total Motor Power =
MRR
max
U
t
E
Where E = Efficiency

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