Permesinan Abrasif dan Operasi Pengakhiran

Bab 9

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 9-1

Kekerasan Knoop untuk Berbagai Bahan dan Abrasif

TABLE 9.1

Common glass Flint, quartz Zirconium oxide Hardened steels Tungsten carbide Aluminum oxide

350500 8001100 1000 7001300 18002400 20003000

Titanium nitride Titanium carbide Silicon carbide Boron carbide Cubic boron nitride Diamond

2000 18003200 21003000 2800 40005000 70008000

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 9-2

Batu Gerinda
Figure 9.1 Schematic illustration of a physical model of a grinding wheel, showing its structure and wear and fracture patterns.

Type of failures

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 9-3

Roda gerinda yang umum

Figure 9.2 Common types of grinding wheels made with conventional abrasives. Note that each wheel has a specific grinding face; grinding on other surfaces is improper and unsafe.

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 9-4

Konfigurasi Roda Superabrasif

Figure 9.3 Examples of superabrasive wheel configurations. The annular regions (rim) are superabrasive grinding surfaces, and the wheel itself (core) is generally made of metal or composites. The bonding materials for the superabrasives are (a), (d), and (e) resinoid, metal, or vitrified, (b) metal, (c) vitrified, and (f) resinoid.

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 9-5

Contoh Abrasif Terikat

Abrasif Konvensional Al2O3 SiC Superabrasif Cubic boron nitride (CBN) Diamond

Figure extra A variety of bonded abrasives used in abrasive machining processes. Source: Courtesy of Norton Company.

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 9-6

Sistem Penandaan untuk Abrasive diikat Aluminum-Oxide dan Silicon-Carbide

Figure 9.4a Standard marking system for aluminum-oxide and silicon-carbide bonded abrasives.

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 9-7

Sistem Penandaan Standar untuk Abrasif diikat Cubic Boron Nitride dan Diamond
Figure 9.4b Standard marking system for cubic boron nitride and diamond bonded abrasives.

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 9-8

Permukaan Roda Gerinda

Figure 9.5 The surface of a grinding wheel (A46-J8V) showing abrasive grains, wheel porosity, wear flats on grains, and metal chips from the workpiece adhering to the grians. Note the random distribution and shape of abrasive grains. Magnification: 50X. Source: S. Kalpakjian.

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 9-9

Serpih Penggerindaan
(a) (b)

Figures 9.6 and 9.9 (a) Grinding chip being produced by a single abrasive grain. (A) chip, (B) workpiece, (C) abrasive grain. Note the large negative rake angle of the grain. The inscribed circle is 0.065 mm (0.0025 in.) in diameter. Source: M. E. Merchant. (b) Schematic illustration of chip formation by an abrasive grain with a wear flat. Note the negative rake angle of the grain and the small shear angle.

Relative v grain force VC

d D

Actual force=relative grain force x strength of metal

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 9-10

Penggerindaan Permukaan dan Pembajakan

Figure 9.7 Schematic illustration of the surface grinding process, showing various process variables. The figure depicts conventional (up) grinding.
(ploughing)

4v t VC

d D

l Dd

C: number of cutting points per unit area of wheel surface Figure 9.8 Chip formation and plowing of the workpiece surface by an abrasive grain. This action is similar to abrasive wear. (See Fig. 32.6).
Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Surface temperature rise

3 d VC 4 T d t v

D
Page 9-11

1997 Addison Wesley

Perkiraan Energi Spesifik yang diperlukan untuk Penggerindaan Permukaan

TABLE 9.3 Workpiece material Aluminum Cast iron (class 40) Low-carbon steel (1020) Titanium alloy Tool steel (T15) Hardness 150 HB 215 HB 110 HB 300 HB 67 HRC Specific energy 3 3 W-s/mm hp-min/in. 727 2.510 1260 4.522 1468 525 1655 620 1882 6.530

Specific energy u = uchip + uploughing + usliding

Much higher energy levels (~20x) than those in cutting with single-point tools Size effect: small size ( higher strength of metal); Wear flat; Chip morphology: negative rake angle ( large shear strain)

MRR dwv Power (u )(MRR) (T )( ) Torque T ( Fc )(D 2) Fc

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials 1997 Addison Wesley Page 9-12

Perautan Muka Menggunakan Kendali Komputer

Figure 9.11 Shaping the grinding face of a wheel by dressing it with computer control. Note that the diamond dressing tool is normal to the surface at point of contact with the wheel. Source: Okuma Machinery Works Ltd.

Dressing: conditioning worn grains Truing to original shape Shaping

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 9-13

Rekomendasi Kisaran Kecepatan, Pemakanan dan Roda Gerinda

TABLE extra Typical Range of Speeds and Feeds for Abrasive Processes Conventional Creep-feed Process variable grinding grinding Buffing Wheel speed (m/min) 15003000 15003000 18003600 Work speed (m/min) 1060 0.11 Feed (mm/pass) 0.010.05 16
TABLE 9.4 Typical Recommendations for Grinding Wheels for Use with Various Materials Material Type of grinding wheel Aluminum C46K6V Brass C46K6V Bronze A54K6V Cast iron C60L6V, A60M6V Carbides C60I9V, D150R75B Ceramics D150N50M Copper C60J8V Nickel alloys B150H100V Nylon A36L8V Steels A60M6V Titanium A60K8V Tool steels ( > 50 HRC) B120WB Note: These recommendations vary significantly, depending on material composition, the particular grinding operation, and grinding fluids used.
Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials 1997 Addison Wesley Page 9-14

Polishing 15002400

Hindu temple, Muktinath, 3900 m, Nepal

Moollight, Beethoven

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 9-15

Geometri Benda Kerja

Figure extra The types of workpieces and operations typical of grinding: (a) cylindrical surfaces, (b) conical surfaces, (c) fillets on a shaft, (d) helical profiles, (e) concave shape, (f) cutting off or slotting with thin wheels, and (g) internal grinding. See also the illustrations in Section 25.6.
Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 9-16

Karakteristik Umum Proses Permesinan Abrasif

TABLE extra Process Surface Cylindrical Characteristics Flat surfaces on most materials; production rate depends on table size and automation; labor skill depends on part; production rate is high on vertical-spindle rotary-table type. Round workpieces with stepped diameters; low production rate unless automated; labor skill depends on part shape. Maximum dimension (m)* Reciprocating table L : 6 Rotary table D : 3 Workpiece D : 0.8 Roll grinders D : 1.8 Universal grinders D : 2.5 Workpiece D : 0.8 Hole D : 2 Spindle D : 1.2 Table D : 3.7

Centerless Round workpieces; high production rate; low to medium labor skill. Internal Bores in workpiece; low production rate; low to medium labor skill. Honing Bores and holes in workpiece; low production rate; low labor skill. Lapping Flat surfaces; high production rate; low labor skill. Ultrasonic Holes and cavities of various shapes, particularly in hard and brittle machining nonconducting materials. *Larger capacities are available for special applications. L=length; D=diameter.

VIDEO
Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials 1997 Addison Wesley Page 9-17

Operasi Penggerindaan Permukaan

Figure 9.12 Schematic illustrations of various surface grinding operations. (a) Traverse grinding with a horizontal-spindle surface grinder. (b) Plunge grinding with a horizontalspindle surface grinder, producing a groove in the workpiece. (c) A vertical-spindle rotarytable grinder (also known as the Blanchard type).

VIDEO
Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials 1997 Addison Wesley Page 9-18

Penggerindaan Permukaan
Figure 9.13 Schematic illustration of a horizontal-spindle surface grinder.

Figure 9.14 (a) Rough grinding of steel balls on a vertical-spindle grinder; the balls are guided by a special rotary fixture. (b) Finish grinding of balls in a multiple-groove fixture. The balls are ground to within 0.013 mm (0.0005 in.) of their final size. Source: American Machinist.
Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials 1997 Addison Wesley Page 9-19

Operasi Penggerindaan Silindris

Figure 9.15 Examples of various cylindrical grinding operations. (a) Traverse grinding, (b) plunge grinding, and (c) profile grinding. Source: Okuma Machinery Works Ltd.

VIDEO
Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials 1997 Addison Wesley Page 9-20

Plunge dan Penggerindaan Non-silindris

Figure 9.16 Plunge grinding of a workpiece on a cylindrical grinder with the wheel dressed to a stepped shape.

Figure extra Schematic illustration of grinding a noncylindrical part on a cylindrical grinder with computer controls to produce the shape. The part rotation and the distance x between centers is varied and synchronized to grind the particular workpiece shape.
Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials 1997 Addison Wesley Page 9-21

Ulir dan Penggerindaan Internal

Figure 9.17 Thread grinding by (a) traverse, and (b) plunge grinding.

Figure 9.18 Schematic illustrations of internal grinding operations.

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 9-22

Pola Siklus pada Penggerindaan Silindris

Figure 25.20

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 9-23

Penggerindaan Tanpa Senter

(c)

Figure 9.19 Schematic illustrations of centerless grinding operations: (a) through feed grinding. (b) Plunge grinding. (c) A computer numerical control cylindrical grinding machine. Source: Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.

VIDEO
Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials 1997 Addison Wesley Page 9-24

Penggerindaan Pemakanan Merangkak (Creep-Feed Grinding)

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 9.21 (a) Schematic illustration of the creep-feed grinding process. Note the large wheel depth of cut, d. (b) A shaped groove produced on a flat surface by creep-feed grinding in one pass. Groove depth is typically on the order of a few mm. (c) An example of creep-feed grinding with a shaped wheel. This operation can also be performed by some of the processes. Source: Courtesy of Blohm, Inc., and Manufacturing Engineering Magazine, Society of Manufacturing Engineers.

VIDEO
(cut grinding)
Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials 1997 Addison Wesley Page 9-25

Rekomendasi Umum untuk Cairan Gerinda

TABLE 9.5 Material Grinding fluid Aluminum E, EP Copper CSN, E, MO FO Magnesium D, MO Nickel CSN, EP Refractory metals EP Steels CSN, E Titanium CSN, E D: dry; E: emulsion; EP: Extreme pressure; CSN: chemicals and synthetics; MO: mineral oil; FO: fatty oil.

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 9-26

Operasi Pengakhiran
Coated abrasives Wire brushing Honing Superfinishing Lapping Polishing Buffing Electropolishing Magnetic-field-assisted polishing

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 9-27

Coated Abrasives (Abrasif Terlapisi)

Abrasives are coated on the backing

Figure 9.23 Schematic illustration of the structure of a coated abrasive. Sandpaper, developed in the 16th century, and emery cloth are common examples of coated abrasives.

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 9-28

Gerinda Sabuk (Belt Grinding)

Figure extra Example: Belt Grinding of Turbine Nozzle Vanes.

Coated abrasives

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 9-29

Honing dan Superfinishing

Figure 9.24 Schematic illustration of a honing tool used to improve the surface finish of bored or ground holes.

Stone: Al2O3 or SiC bonded abrasives

: very light

Figure 9.25 Schematic illustrations of the superfinishing process for a cylindrical part. (a) Cylindrical mircohoning, (b) Centerless microhoning.

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 9-30

Lapping
Figure 9.26 (a) Schematic illustration of the lapping process. (b) Production lapping on flat surfaces. (c) Production lapping on cylindrical surfaces.
(embedded in the lap)

Lap: cast iron, copper, leather, or cloth

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 9-31

Pemolesan dengan Medan Magnet

Magnetic force: press the abrasive grains on the workpiece

Figure 9.27 Schematic illustration of polishing of balls and rollers using magnetic fields. (a) Magnetic float polishing of ceramic balls. (b) Magnetic-field-assisted polishing of rollers. Source: R. Komanduri, M. Doc, and M. Fox.

Bearing steels of 63 HRC have been mirror finished in 30 seconds

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials 1997 Addison Wesley Page 9-32

Permesinan Aliran Abrasif (Abrasive-Flow Machining)

Figure 9.28 Schematic illustration of abrasive flow machining to deburr a turbine impeller. The arrows indicate movement of the abrasive media. Note the special fixture, which is usually different for each part design. Source: Extrude Hone Corp.

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 9-33

Robotic Deburring
Figure extra A deburring operation on a robotheld die-cast part for an outboard motor housing, using a grinding wheel. Abrasive belts or flexible abrasive radial-wheel brushes can also be used for such operations. Source: Courtesy of Acme Manufacturing Company and Manufacturing Engineering Magazine, Society of Manufacturing Engineers.

Vibratory and barrel finishing Shot blasting Abrasive-flow machining Thermal energy method: melting of burrs Manually with files
Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials 1997 Addison Wesley Page 9-34

Bridge over Kali Gandaki (River), Nepal

Symphony No. 5, Beethoven

Be awake ! ! Bangun!

Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

1997 Addison Wesley

Page 9-35