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Figure 2.0_1
Figure 2.0_2
Chemical Bonds
Figure 2.0_3
Table 2.1
Figure 2.1
Sodium
Chlorine
Sodium chloride
Figure 2.1_1
Sodium
Figure 2.1_2
Chlorine
Figure 2.1_3
Sodium chloride
Figure 2.1_4
Sodium chloride
Trace elements are essential but are only needed in minute quantities.
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2.2 CONNECTION: Trace elements are common additives to food and water
Some trace elements are required to prevent disease.
Without iron, your body cannot transport oxygen. An iodine deficiency prevents production of thyroid hormones, resulting in goiter.
Figure 2.2A
2.2 CONNECTION: Trace elements are common additives to food and water
Fluoride is added to municipal water and dental products to help reduce tooth decay.
Figure 2.2B
2.2 CONNECTION: Trace elements are common additives to food and water
Several chemicals are added to food to
help preserve it, make it more nutritious, and/or make it look better.
Check out the Nutrition Facts label on foods and drinks you purchase.
Figure 2.2C
Figure 2.3A
Helium Nucleus
2e
Neutrons
Electrons
Figure 2.3B
6e
Different isotopes of an element behave identically in chemical reactions. In radioactive isotopes, the nucleus decays spontaneously, giving off particles and energy.
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Table 2.3
Figure 2.4A
Figure 2.4B
Healthy person
Alzheimers patient
CHEMICAL BONDS
Figure 2.5
Helium
Beryllium
Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon
Magnesium
Aluminum
Silicon
Phosphorus
Sulfur
Chlorine
Argon
Figure 2.5_1
Hydrogen
Helium
Lithium
Beryllium
Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon
Sodium
Magnesium
Aluminum
Silicon
Phosphorus
Sulfur
Chlorine
Argon
2.6 Covalent bonds join atoms into molecules through electron sharing
The strongest kind of chemical bond is a covalent bond in which two atoms share one or more outershell electrons. Two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds form a molecule.
2.6 Covalent bonds join atoms into molecules through electron sharing
A covalent bond connects two hydrogen atoms in a molecule of the gas H2. There are four alternative ways to represent common molecules.
Table 2.6
Table 2.6_1
Table 2.6_2
2.6 Covalent bonds join atoms into molecules through electron sharing
Atoms in a covalently bonded molecule continually compete for shared electrons.
The attraction (pull) for shared electrons is called electronegativity. More electronegative atoms pull harder.
2.6 Covalent bonds join atoms into molecules through electron sharing
In molecules of only one element, the pull toward each atom is equal, because each atom has the same electronegativity. The bonds formed are called nonpolar covalent bonds.
2.6 Covalent bonds join atoms into molecules through electron sharing
Water has atoms with different electronegativities.
Oxygen attracts the shared electrons more strongly than hydrogen. So, the shared electrons spend more time near oxygen. The oxygen atom has a slightly negative charge and the hydrogen atoms have a slightly positive charge. The result is a polar covalent bond.
Figure 2.6
(slightly )
(slightly )
(slightly )
Figure 2.7A_s2
Transfer of electron
Na Sodium atom
Cl Chlorine atom
Figure 2.7A_s2
Transfer of electron
Na Sodium atom
Cl Chlorine atom
Na Sodium ion
Cl Chloride ion
Figure 2.7B
Cl Na
Figure 2.7B_1
2.8 Hydrogen bonds are weak bonds important in the chemistry of life
Most large molecules are held in their threedimensional functional shape by weak bonds. Hydrogen, as part of a polar covalent bond, has a partial positive charge. The charged regions on molecules are electrically attracted to oppositely charged regions on neighboring molecules.
Because the positively charged region is always a hydrogen atom, the bond is called a hydrogen bond.
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Figure 2.8
Hydrogen bond
2H2 + O2
2H2O
Figure 2.9
2 H2
O2
2 H2O
Reactants
Products
Figure 2.10
Heat is released when hydrogen bonds form. Heat must be absorbed to break hydrogen bonds.
Figure 2.11
Figure 2.12
Hydrogen bond
Figure 2.12
Figure 2.13
Ion in solution
Salt crystal
Figure 2.14
pH scale
Battery acid
Acidic solution
Tomato juice
Rainwater Human urine Saliva NEUTRAL [H][OH] Pure water Human blood, tears Seawater Neutral solution
Milk of magnesia
Oven cleaner
Figure 2.14_1
pH scale
Battery acid
Tomato juice
Figure 2.14_2
pH scale
NEUTRAL [H][OH]
Pure water
Human blood, tears Seawater
Milk of magnesia
Household ammonia
Household bleach
Oven cleaner
Figure 2.14_3
Acidic solution
Neutral solution
Basic solution
2.15 CONNECTION: Acid precipitation and ocean acidification threaten the environment
When we burn fossil fuels (coal, oil, and gas), airpolluting compounds and CO2 are released into the atmosphere.
Sulfur and nitrous oxides react with water in the air to form acids. These acids fall to Earth as acid precipitation, which is rain, snow, or fog with a pH lower than 5.2. CO2 dissolving in seawater lowers ocean pH in a process known as ocean acidification.
Figure 2.15
2.16 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: The search for extraterrestrial life centers on the search for water
The emergent properties of water support life on Earth.
When astrobiologists search for signs of extraterrestrial life on distant planets, they look for evidence of water. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has found evidence that water was once abundant on Mars.
Figure 2.16
Figure 2.UN01
Nucleus
Atom
Figure 2.UN02
Figure 2.UN03
Atoms
have positively charged (a) number present equals have neutral have negatively charged (c)
Chemical Bonds
electron transfer electron sharing between atoms between atoms creates creates
ions
attraction between ions creates (f) (g)
example is
can lead to
water
(h)
Figure 2.UN03_1
Atoms
have positively charged (a) number present equals
have neutral
(b) number may differ in (d)
Chemical Bonds
Figure 2.UN03_2
Chemical Bonds
electron transfer between atoms creates electron sharing between atoms creates
ions
attraction between ions creates (f) (g)
example is
can lead to
water
(h)
Figure 2.UN04
Fluorine atom
Potassium atom