What Is Motivation?

Direction

Intensity

Persistence

Motivation

Too much emphasis on monetary rewards Rewards lack an appreciation effect Extensive benefits become entitlements Counterproductive behavior is rewarded Too long a delay between performance and rewards Too many one-size-fits-all rewards Use of one-shot rewards with a short-lived motivational impact Continued use of demotivating practices such as layoffs, across-the-board raises and cuts, and excessive executive compensation

Why Rewards Often Fail to Motivate

Contingent Consequences in Operant Conditioning

Behavior-Consequence Relationship

Nature of Consequences
Negative or Displeasing Behavioral outcome:
Punishment

Positive or Pleasing Contingent Presentation

Positive Reinforcement
Target behavior occurs more often.

Behavioral outcome:

Target behavior occurs less often.

Contingent Withdrawal

Target behavior occurs less often.

Behavioral outcome:

Punishment (Response Cost)

Negative Reinforcement
Target behavior occurs more often.

Behavioral outcome:

Behavioral outcome: Target behavior occurs less often

(no contingent consequence) Extinction

Schedules of Reinforcement
Schedule Description
Continuous (CRF) Intermittent Fixed ratio (FR) Variable ratio (VR)
Reinforcer follows every response
Reinforcer does not follow every response
A fixed number of responses must be emitted before reinforcement occurs. A varying or random number of responses must be emitted before reinforcement occurs.

Fixed interval (FI)

The first response after a specific period of time has elapsed is reinforced

Variable interval (VI) The first response after varying or random

periods of time have elapsed is reinforced.

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Self

Esteem
Social Safety

Physiological

Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory

Hygiene Factors
Quality of supervision Rate of pay Company policies Working conditions Relations with others Job security
High Job Dissatisfaction

Motivational Factors
Career Advancement Personal growth Recognition Responsibility

Achievement
0
Job Satisfaction High

Alderfers ERG Theory

Existence

Growth

Relatedness

Need for Achievement

(nAch)

The Theory of Needs

Need for Power

(nPow)

Need for Affiliation

(nAff)

David McClelland

Cognitive Evaluation

Intrinsic Motivators

Extrinsic Motivators

The Job Characteristics Model

Core job characteristics *Skill variety *Task identity *Task significance *Autonomy *Feedback from job Critical psychological states *Experienced meaningfulness of the work *Experienced responsibility for outcomes of the work *Knowledge of the actual results of the work activities Outcomes *High internal work motivation *High growth satisfaction *High general job satisfaction *High work effectiveness

Moderators 1. Knowledge and skill 2. Growth need strength 3. Context satisfactions

Approaches to Job Design

1. The Mechanistic Approach focuses on identifying the
most efficient way to perform a job. Employees are trained and rewarded to perform their jobs accordingly. 2. Motivational Approaches these techniques (job enlargement, job rotation, job enrichment, and job characteristics) attempt to improve employees affective and attitudinal reactions and behavioral outcomes.

3. Biological and Perceptual- Motor Approaches

Biological techniques focus on reducing employees physical strain, effort, fatigue, and health complaints. The PerceptualMotor Approach emphasizes the reliability of work outcomes by examining error rates, accidents, and workers feedback about facilities and equipment.

Skills and Best Practices: Applying the Job Characteristics Model

1. Diagnose the level of employee motivation and job. satisfaction and consider redesigning jobs when motivation ranges from low to moderate. Determine whether job redesign is appropriate in a given context. Redesign jobs by including employees input.

2. 3.

Equity Theory
Ratio Comparison*
Outcomes A Inputs A Outcomes A Inputs A Outcomes A Inputs A
*Where

Employees Perception
Outcomes B Inputs B Inequity (Under-Rewarded)

<

Outcomes B Inputs B

Equity

>

Outcomes B Inputs B

Inequity (Over-Rewarded)

A is the employee, and B is a relevant other or referent.

Negative and Positive Inequity

A. An Equitable Situation
Self Other

$2

= $2 per hour 1 hour

$4

= $2 per hour 2 hours

Negative and Positive Inequity (cont)

B. Negative Inequity
Self Other

$2

= $2 per hour 1 hour

$3 1 hour

= $3 per hour

Negative and Positive Inequity (cont)

C. Positive Inequity
Self Other

$3

= $3 per hour 1 hour

$2

= $1 per hour 1 hours

Organizational Justice
Distributive Justice: The perceived fairness of Procedural Justice: The perceived fairness of
the process and procedures used to make allocation decisions. how resources and rewards are distributed.

Interactional Justice:
The perceived fairness of the decision makers behavior in the process of decision making.

Research into Equity

Distributive Justice Procedural Justice

Amount and Allocation of Rewards

Perceived Fairness of the Distribution Process

Equity Sensitivity
Equity Sensitivity is an individuals tolerance
for negative and positive equity. Benevolents Sensitives Entitleds

Motivation Theories Are Culture Bound

Hierarchy of Needs Need for Achievement

Equity Theory

Expectancy Theory
Individual Effort 1 Individual Performance 2 Organizational Rewards 3 1. Effort-performance relationship 2. Performance-rewards relationship 3. Rewards-personal goals relationship Personal Goals

Vrooms Expectancy Theory Concepts

Expectancy: Belief that effort leads to a
specific level of performance

Instrumentality: A performance outcome

perception.

Valence: The Value of a reward or outcome

Managerial Implications of Expectancy Theory

Determine the outcomes employees value. Identify good performance so appropriate behaviors can be rewarded. Make sure employees can achieve targeted performance levels. Link desired outcomes to targeted levels of performance. Make sure changes in outcomes are large enough to motivate high effort. Monitor the reward system for inequities.

Organizational Implications of Expectancy Theory

Reward people for desired performance, and do not keep pay decisions secret. Design challenging jobs. Tie some rewards to group accomplishments to build teamwork and encourage cooperation. Reward managers for creating, monitoring, and maintaining expectancies, instrumentalities, and oucomes that lead to high effort and goal attainment. Monitor employee motivation through interviews or anonymous questionnaires. Accommodate individual differences by building flexibility into the motivation program.

Goal-Setting Theory
Specificity Challenge Feedback Participation Commitment Self-efficacy Characteristics Culture

Insights from Goal-Setting Research

Difficult Goals Lead to Higher Performance. - Easy goals produce low effort because the goal is too easy to achieve. - Impossible goals ultimately lead to lower performance because people begin to experience failure. Specific Difficult Goals Lead to Higher Performance for Simple Rather Than Complex Tasks. - Goal specificity pertains to the quantifiability of a goal. - Specific difficult goals impair performance on novel, complex tasks when employees do not have clear strategies for solving these types of problems. Feedback Enhances The Effect of Specific, Difficult Goals. - Goals and feedback should be used together.

Insights from Goal-Setting Research (continued)

Participative Goals, Assigned Goals, and Self-Set Goals Are Equally Effective. - Managers should set goals by using a contingency approach. Different methods work in different situations. Goal Commitment and Monetary Incentives Affect GoalSetting Outcomes. - Difficult goals lead to higher performance when employees are committed to their goals. - Difficult goals lead to lower performance when employees are not committed to their goals. - Goal based incentives can lead to negative outcomes for employees in complex, interdependent jobs requiring cooperation.

Guidelines for Writing SMART Goals

Specific Measurable Attainable Results oriented Time bound

An Integrative Model of Motivation

High nAch
Ability Opportunity Performance Appraisal Criteria Equity Comparison O O IA IB

Individual Effort

Individual Performance

Organization Rewards

Personal Goals

Performance Appraisal System

Reinforcement

Dominant Needs

Goals Direct Behavior

Special Motivation Issues

Professionals Contingent workers Diversified workforce Low-skilled service workers Highly repetitive tasks