GROUP MEMBERS

Attiqa Imtiaz (Group Leader) Fzeela,Laraib,Maham,Hira,Shiza, Shifa,Saba,Ayesha,Shafaq,Dua,Aneeza.

OBJECTIVES
Mitosis and its Phases. Meiosis and its Phases. Differences b/w Mitosis and Meiosis. Cell Cycle.

MITOSIS
Defination: Cell divides into two daughter cells with identical copies of its DNA . Functions: 1. Formation of multicellular embryo from a fertilized egg. 2. Tissue growth. 3. Replacement of old & dead cells. 4. Repair of injured tissues.

PHASES OF MITOSIS

Prophase

Metaphase

Anaphase

Telophase

PHASES OF MITOSIS (cont)

Prophase: Condensation of chromosomes Disappearance of nucleoli Formation of mitotic spindle Division of centrioles

 Metaphase: Migration of mitotic spindle towards the center Formation of Equatorial plate or Metaphase plate Disappearance of nuclear envelop Pole to pole alignment of centrioles

PHASES OF MITOSIS (cont...)

Anaphase: Separation of chromatids Migration of chromosomes from the Equatorial plate At the end of this phase chromosomes cluster at the spindle poles Telophase: Appearance of cleavage furrow leading to division of two cells Appearance of Misbody Reappearance of nuclear envelope and nucleoli Uncoiling of chromosomes

Medical Application
Cell proliferation is regulated by a group of genes called Pronto-Oncogens Mutation in Pronto-Oncogens leads to loss of control over mitotic cell division that leads to the formation of Tumors. The mutated Pronto-Oncogens are called Oncogens.

MCQs

a) b) c) a) b) c)

a) b) c)

The number of chromatids after replication of DNA that takes place before mitosis is 46 92 138 Midbody is Group of enzymes Collection of nucleotides Bundle of spindle microtubules Mr. Akmal complained of a scar in his mouth that have not been healing for last 3 months. He found difficulty in eating food. The oncologist diagnosed him Oral cavity tumour . Which of the following genes are responsible for this tumour formation Pronto-oncogens Polymerase ll Oncogens

MEIOSIS
Defination: the cell division which leads to the formation of four daughter cells having haploid (n) number of chromosomes. It occurs in the germ cells. Functions: Formation of germ cells Maintains the chromosome number of a species Provides genetic variation

MEIOSIS

MEIOSIS l
PROPHASE l

MEIOSIS ll
PROPHASE ll METAPHASE ll ANAPHASE ll TELOPHASE ll

METAPHASE l
ANAPHASE l TELOPHASE l

PHASES OF MEIOSIS l
Prophase l: it is further divided into following phases: Leptotene: Chromosomes become visible Zygotene: Synapsis(length wise pairing up of homologus chromosomes) occurs Pachytene: Coiling of homologous chromosomes occurs Bivalent chromosomes(each chromosome having four chromatids) are formed Due to close apposition the homologous chromosomes give a false appearance of being one chromosome and their nuclei appear erroneoursly

PHASES OF MEIOSIS l PROPHASE l (cont)

Diplotene: Formation of chiasmata Separation of homologous chromosomes except the point of chiasmata Crossing over occurs Diakinesis: Nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappears Separation of chromosomes from thickened parts of chromosomes and chiasmata occurs

PHASES OF MEIOSIS l (cont)

Metaphase: The meiotic spindle move towards the center and get arranged with: Centrioles on each pole Microtubules originate from centrioles Equatorial plate is formed Homologous Chromosomes allign on the equatorial plate

PHASES OF MEIOSIS l (cont)

Anaphase: Homologous chromosomes separate Each chromosome have two chromatids Assortment of chromosomes is random Microtubules contract and pull the chromosomes towards respective poles Telophase: Nucleoli and nuclear envelope reappear Now each chromosome is double structure (having two chromatids) The two daughter cells formed will have haploid(n) number of chromosomes which is half the number of parent chromosome.

MEIOSIS ll
This phase of meiosis is similar to mitosis in the following respects: Each of the two daughter cells formed will divide into two cells identical to the parent cells Chromosome number is haploid (n) Karyokinesis is followed by cytokinesis

Medical Application
If meiosis doesnt occur normally then it may lead to many severe problems e.g If non-disjunction of chromosomes occurs it may cause many severe conditions such as: Downs syndrome Klinfelters syndrome etc

MCQs
Non disjunction of homologous chromosomes is a consequence of which of the following phase a) Diplotene b) Anaphase l c) Telophase Mr. shoaib has straight hairs with a heterozygous genome,Mrs shoaib has straight hairs but with homoozygous genome. Ali their son has got curly hairs. Which of the following phenomenon is responsible for this diversity? a) Crossing over b) Independent assortment of chromosomes c) Recombination of genes d) All of the above A tetrad is formed during which of the following phase a) Diplotene b) Zygotene c) Pechytene d) diakinasis

DIFFERENCES
MITOSIS
A type of cell division which results in the formation of two daughter cells. It occurs in all somatic cells except the germ cells. The daughter cells formed are identical to their parents. This division is responsible for growth, development, regeneration, healing etc.

MEIOSIS
A type of cell division which results in the formation of four daughter cells. It occurs only in germ cells. The daughter cells are haploid(n) and show diversity in genome. This division is responsible for the formation of sperms and ova.

DIFFERENCES (cont)
MITOSIS
It is dynamic and continous. It is completed in four phases.

MEIOSIS
It is restricted to germ cell sysnthesis time. It comprises of two stages Meiosis l Meiosis ll It takes hours or days to complete. Replication of DNA occurs beforer Meiosis ll. Crossing over occurs leading to variation or recombination of genes.

Its duration is 30-60 min. Replication of DNA occurs before mitosis. Crossing over does not takes place.

DIFFERENCES (cont)
MITOSIS
At equatorial plate each alligned chromosome is univalent(having two chromatids). There is No formation of chiasmata.

MEIOSIS
At equatorial plate each alligned chromosome is bivalent(having four chromatids). Homologous chromosomes combine length wise and forms chiasmata. There is no division of centromere. Homologous chromosomes separate during Anaphase l. Assortment of chromosomes is random which leads to genetic diversity.

Division of centromere occurs. Chromatids separate during Anphase. Assortment of chromosomes is regular.

CELL CYCLE
Defination: It is a series of events that takes place in a cell leading to its division & duplication.
.

Cells Divide
When they receive an adequate supply of nutrients. When they are stimulated by Growth factors. Chemical signals. When neighboring cells die, opening up spaces in a tissue to be occupied by new cells.

Cells Stop Dividing

When nutrients / growth factors are withdrawn. When they contact with neighboring cells (contact inhibition).

Length of Cell Cycle

It varies in different cells as follows: Stomach & Skin cells divide rapidly. Bone & Cartilage cells divide slowly . Skeletal muscle and Nerve cells do not divide. Yeast cell divide every 90120 min. Mammalian Liver cells divide once a year.

Cell Cycle in Different Types of Cells

In Prokaryotes ( Cell with out nucleus) Cell cycle occurs via binary fission In Eukaryotes ( Cell with Nucleus) Cell cycle can be divided into two phases Interphase M-Phase

INTERPHASE
Defination: the phase between two consecutive divisions i.e between two MPhases. Changes Occuring during interphase: Cell simply increases in size It restores energy, proteins, nucleotides for DNA synthesis Cell prepare itself for division

INTERPHASE
G1(Gap 1) Phase
S(synthesis) Phase G2(Gap 2) Phase

G1 (gap) Growth Phase

Definition : Period between completion of M- Phase & beginning of S- Phase. Purpose: Biosynthetic activities that are slowed down in M-Phase resume at high rate. Increase synthesis of enzymes Required in S-Phase. Required for DNA replication. Cell synthesizes proteins Cell grows Cell begins to replicate their centrioles Cell manufactures enough Mitochondria, Endop[lasmic Reticulum-Golgi apparatus, Ribosomes and Cytoskeletal elements. It follows cell division Cell volume is restored Synthesis of RNA occurs Its duration is 8 hours.

S (Synthesis) Phase
Intervening phase between G1 and G2 Cell carry out DNA replication. Synthesis of DNA takes place which forms the replica of the whole genetic material Combines DNA with Histones. At start of S-Phase. Chromosome is composed of one coiled DNA (Double helix ). At end of S- Phase. Each chromosome has two identical DNA. Its duration is 8 hours.

G2 (Gap) Phase
Brief period between DNA replication & cell division. Intervening phase between S and M phase It is the shortest phase of interphase Cell synthesizes enzymes that control cell division. Chromosomes are not distinguished. Chromosomes are loosely packed as chromatin. Microtubules are synthesized ,required for process of mitosis. Production and accumulation of energy takes place Synthesis of Tubulin protein takes place which is responsible for synthesis of Microtubules Its duration is 2-4 hours.

Go Phase
Some static and stable cell population does not undergo cell division so they are arrest themselves in a resting phase called G0 phase throughout their life. Cell proliferation is regulated by a group of genes called Pronto-Oncogens Mutation in Pronto-Oncogens leads to loss of control over mitotic cell division that leads to the formation of Tumors. The mutated Pronto-Oncogens are called Oncogens.

MEDICAL APPLICATION
Some growth factors are being used in medicine. One example is erythropoietin, which stimulates proliferation, differentiation, and survival of red blood cell precursors in the bone marrow. Progression through the cell cycle is also regulated by various signals which halt cycling under adverse conditions. DNA damage can arrest the cell cycle not only at the G1 restriction point, but also during S or at a checkpoint in G2 (Figure 319). G1 arrest may permit repair of the damage to occur before the cell enters S phase, so that the damaged DNA is not replicated. If the problem encountered at any checkpoint cannot be corrected while cycling is halted, tumor suppressor genes or proteins (such as p53) are activated and the cell's activity is redirected toward cell suicide or apoptosis. The gene encoding p53 is often mutated in cancer cells, thus reducing the cell's ability to detect and repair damaged DNA. Inheritance of damaged DNA by daughter cells results in a greater frequency of mutations and general instability of the genome, which may contribute to the development of the cancer.

MCQs
Cycling in postmitotic cells (bypassing the G0 state) is triggered by protein signals from the extracellular environment, which activate cell surface receptors.These protein signals are a) Mitogens b) Oncogens c) Ponto- oncogens Entry or progression through each phase of the cycle is controlled by specific sets of proteins a) Proteases b) Cyclins and CDKs c) Albumin