Imbaba Aviation Institute Mechanical Power Department, 4th YEAR Fall Semester 2010/2011

- Introduction to Combustion systems - Definition of combustion efficiency and factors affecting it. - Methods of energy conservation in combustion systems. - Control systems in combustion. - Waste heat recovery. - Performance control of various systems.

Energy Management

What Is Energy Management? The use of Engineering and Economic principles to CONTROL the cost of energy to provide needed services in buildings and industries.

Energy Management
NEED FOR ENERGY MANAGEMENT IMPORTANT REASONS: 1. ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY 2. ECONOMIC COMPETITIVENESS

3. REDUCE COSTS AND CREATE JOBS

4. ENERGY SECURITY 5. CORPORATE REQUIREMENT

DEFINITIONS

ENERGY: the capacity of doing work Thermal, Electromagnetic, Nuclear, Mechanical, Chemical, etc. ENERGY CONSERVATION LAW

Energy is transformed from one form to

another and the total amount of energy

remains the same.

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DEFINITIONS
EFFICIENCY is the ratio of the output of a system in relation with its input.

MOTORS a device that converts electrical

energy into mechanical energy. GENERATOR converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. TRANSFORMER - Is a device that converts AC electric energy at one voltage level to an AC electric energy at another voltage level. They are classified as step-up or step-down transformers depending of the function they are being used for.

DEFINITIONS POWER FACTOR : is the ratio of the total power produced between the power used. PF = COS

KVA
KVAR

KW
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DEFINITIONS

COGENERATION is the sequential production of thermal and electric energy from a single fuel source. Heat, that would normally be lost, is recovered in the production of one form of energy. The heat is then used to generate the second form of energy.

HOW& WHY ENERGY CONSERVATION

HOW? Energy Audits

Fuel Switching
Electric Rate Structures Electrical System Utilization PF Correction Lighting Improvements Motors And Applications Insulation HVAC Improvements Waste Heat Recovery; Cogeneration, ETC.
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ENERGY AUDITS

ENERGY AUDITS An Energy Audit (or Energy Survey) is a study of how energy is used in a facility and an analysis of what alternatives could be used to reduce energy costs. This process starts by collecting information of the facilitys operation and about its past record of utility bills. This data is then analyzed to get a picture of how the facility uses ( and possibly wastes) energy, and identify ECOs (Energy Conservation Opportunities).

COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY In any closed combustion system such as a boiler, we can measure precisely what occurred at the burner by carefully measuring the exhaust. The goal is to be able to carefully control the fuel and airflow to ensure the complete and efficient combustion. We will see why excess air is important and why too much excess air is expensive.
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SAVINGS

% SAVINGS IN FUEL
= (New Eff. Old Eff.)/New Eff. Savings = (% Savings)(Fuel consumption)

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SAVINGS
Example 1
Last year a 20 x 106 BTU/HR boiler consumed 19000 MCF of natural gas at $4.00/MCF. The

boiler operates at 6% O2 and 700 F STR.

What is the saving to correcting that to 3% O2 ?

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SAVINGS As can be seen later

Eff 1. = 74.5% Eff. 2 = 77%

% Savings = (77 74.5)/77 = 3.2 % $ Savings = (3.2%) [ 19,000 MCF][$ 4.00] = $ 2,500 / YR

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Introduction to Furnaces

Introduction Type of furnaces and refractory materials Assessment of furnaces Energy efficiency opportunities

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MAIN COMPONENTS OF COMBUSTION SYSTEM

There are six components that may be important in industrial combustion processes load itself, a combustor, heat recovery device flow control system air pollution control system.

Schematic of an industrial combustion process.

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FURNACES

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COMBUSTION PRINCIPLES

Combustion chemistry In practice, since combustion conditions are never ideal. The actual quantity depends on many factors, such as fuel type and composition, furnace design, firing rate, and the design and adjustment of the burners stoichiometric requirement industrial processes.

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The other species depends on what oxidizer is used and what is the ratio of the fuel to oxidizer is air nearly 79% N2 by volume. If the combustion is fuel rich, If the combustion is fuel lean.

Figure 18. Stoichiometric Air Requirements for Combustion

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Unburned hydrocarbons
Fuel was not fully combusted Fuel properties: Heating value of the fuel either the higher
heating value (HHV) lower heating value (LHV) excludes the heat of vaporization.

The stoichiometry or mixture ratio in industry is as follows:

The mixture ratio :

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Where SP is the stoichiometric ratio for theoretically perfect combustion. fuel-rich combustion of CH4, S2 < 9.52. For the fuellean combustion of CH4, S2 > 9.52. Using the above definition for the mixture ratio, 1.0 < for fuel-rich flames and 1.0 > for fuel-lean flames.

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Combustion properties

Combustion products The oxidizer composition, mixture ratio, air and fuel preheat temperatures, and fuel composition.

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An adiabatic process means that no heat is lost during the reaction, or that the reaction occurs in a perfectly insulated chamber.

An equilibrium process means that there is an infinite amount of time for the chemical reactions to take place.

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FLAME TEMPERATURE

The actual flame temperature is lower than the adiabatic equilibrium flame temperature due to imperfect combustion and radiation from the flame. A highly luminous flame generally has a lower flame temperature than a highly non-luminous flame. The actual flame temperature will also be lower when the load and the walls are more radiatively absorptive. The flame temperature is a critical variable in determining the heat transfer from the flame to the load.

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Oxidizer and fuel composition

The flame temperature increases significantly when air is replaced with oxygen

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Nearly all industrial combustion applications are run at fuel-lean conditions to ensure that the CO emissions are low. NOx emissions are also maximized since NOx increases approximately exponentially with gas temperature.

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STACK GAS COMPOSITION

1.

Point A: 2C + O22 CO + heat

2.

Point B: 2CO + O22 CO2 + heat

3.

Point C CO to have reached a low level. A small amount of oxygen

4.

To achieve .complete. combustion, a small amount of air must be added over. Point D. At this point, the CO 2 level reaches a peak (typically around 15- 16 percent for oil fuels, and 11-12 percent for natural gas).

5.

Point E, oxygen level builds towards 20.9 percent.

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BURNER TESTING: Operating parameters, pollutant emissions, flame dimensions, heat flux profile, safety limitations, and noise data heat release range of the burner. Turndown is defined as the ratio of maximum heat release to minimum heat release:

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 An operator also needs to know the point at which a burner will become unstable if fired below the minimum heat release absolute minimum the combustion air settings can be determined through testing to ensure the efficient operation. The emissions of pollutants such as NOx ,CO, and unburned hydrocarbons (UHC). When firing burners on a wide variety of fuels, flame dimensions can change, depending on the fuel fired.

Another valuable piece of data that can be collected is noise. API 535 gives some good guidelines for specifications and data required for burners used in fired

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Introduction to Furnaces

What are Refractories:

Materials that
Withstand high temperatures and sudden changes Withstand action of molten slag, glass, hot gases etc Withstand load at service conditions Withstand abrasive forces Conserve heat Have low coefficient of thermal expansion Will not contaminate the load
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Introduction to Furnaces

Refractories
Refractory lining of a furnace arc

Refractory walls of a furnace interior with burner blocks

(BEE India, 2005)
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Introduction to Furnaces

Properties of Refractories
Melting point
Temperature at which a test pyramid (cone) fails to support its own weight

Size
Affects stability of furnace structure

Bulk density
Amount of refractory material within a volume (kg/m3) High bulk density = high volume stability, heat capacity and resistance
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Introduction to Furnaces

Properties of Refractories
Porosity
Volume of open pores as % of total refractory volume Low porosity = less penetration of molten material

Cold crushing strength

Resistance of refractory to crushing

Creep at high temperature

Deformation of refractory material under stress at given time and temperature
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Introduction to Furnaces

Properties of Refractories
Pyrometric cones
Used in ceramic industries to test refractoriness of refractory bricks Each cone is mix of oxides that melt at specific temperatures
(BEE India, 2004)

Pyrometric Cone Equivalent (PCE)

Temperature at which the refractory brick and the cone bend Refractory cannot be used above this temp
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Introduction to Furnaces

Properties of Refractories
Volume stability, expansion & shrinkage
Permanent changes during refractory service life Occurs at high temperatures

Reversible thermal expansion

Phase transformations during heating and cooling

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Introduction to Furnaces

Properties of Refractories
Thermal conductivity
Depends on composition and silica content Increases with rising temperature

High thermal conductivity:

Heat transfer through brickwork required E.g. recuperators, regenerators

Low thermal conductivity:

Heat conservation required (insulating refractories) E.g. heat treatment furnaces
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Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Classification of Refractories
Classification method Chemical composition
ACID, which readily combines with bases BASIC, which consists mainly of metallic oxides that resist the action of bases NEUTRAL, which does not combine with acids nor bases Special Silica, Semisilica, Aluminosilicate Magnesite, Chrome-magnesite, Magnesitechromite, Dolomite Fireclay bricks, Chrome, Pure Alumina Carbon, Silicon Carbide, Zirconia Blast furnace casting pit Dry press process, fused cast, hand moulded, formed normal, fired or chemically bonded, unformed (monolithics, plastics, ramming mass, gunning castable, spraying) 38

Examples

End use Method of manufacture

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Fireclay Refractories
Common in industry: materials available and inexpensive
Consist of aluminium silicates Decreasing melting point (PCE) with increasing impurity and decreasing AL2O3

High Alumina Refractories

45 - 100% alumina High alumina % = high refractoriness

Applications: hearth and shaft of blast furnaces, ceramic kilns, cement kilns, glass tanks
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Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Silica Brick
>93% SiO2 made from quality rocks Iron & steel, glass industry

Advantages: no softening until fusion point is reached; high refractoriness; high resistance to spalling, flux and slag, volume stability

Magnesite
Chemically basic: >85% magnesium oxide Properties depend on silicate bond concentration High slag resistance, especially lime and iron
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Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Chromite Refractories
Chrome-magnesite
15-35% Cr2O3 and 42-50% MgO Used for critical parts of high temp furnaces Withstand corrosive slags High refractories

Magnesite-chromite
>60% MgO and 8-18% Cr2O3 High temp resistance Basic slags in steel melting Better spalling resistance
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Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Zirconia Refractories
Zirconium dioxide ZrO2 Stabilized with calcium, magnesium, etc.

High strength, low thermal conductivity, not reactive, low thermal loss
Used in glass furnaces, insulating refractory

Oxide Refractories (Alumina)

Aluminium oxide + alumina impurities Chemically stable, strong, insoluble, high resistance in oxidizing and reducing atmosphere Used in heat processing industry, crucible shaping
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Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Monolithics
Single piece casts in equipment shape
Replacing conventional refractories Advantages
Elimination of joints Faster application Heat savings Better spalling resistance Volume stability Easy to transport, handle, install Reduced downtime for repairs
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Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Insulating Materials Classification

Material with low heat conductivity: keeps furnace surface temperature low Classification into five groups
Insulating bricks Insulating castables and concrete Ceramic fiber Calcium silicate Ceramic coatings (high emissivity coatings)
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Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Castables and Concretes

Consist of
Insulation materials used for making piece refractories Concretes contain Portland or high-alumina cement

Application
Monolithic linings of furnace sections Bases of tunnel kiln cars in ceramics industry

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Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Ceramic Fibers
Thermal mass insulation materials
Manufactured by blending alumina and silica Bulk wool to make insulation products
Blankets, strips, paper, ropes, wet felt etc

Produced in two temperature grades

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Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Ceramic Fibers
Remarkable properties and benefits
Low thermal conductivity Light weight Lower heat storage Thermal shock resistant Chemical resistance Mechanical resilience Low installation costs Ease of maintenance Ease of handling Thermal efficiency Lightweight furnace Simple steel fabrication work Low down time Increased productivity Additional capacity Low maintenance costs Longer service life High thermal efficiency Faster response
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Type of Furnaces and Refractories

High Emissivity Coatings

Emissivity: ability to absorb and radiate heat
Coatings applied to interior furnace surface:
emissivity stays constant Increase emissivity from 0.3 to 0.8 Uniform heating and extended refractory life Fuel reduction by up to 25-45%

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Type of Furnaces and Refractories

High Emissivity Coatings

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Assessment of Furnaces

Introduction
Type of furnaces and refractory materials

Assessment of furnaces
Energy efficiency opportunities

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Assessment of Furnaces
Heat Losses Affecting Furnace Performance

Heat input

FURNACE
Heat in stock

Flue gas

Moisture in fuel

Hydrogen in fuel

Openings in furnace

Furnace surface/skin

Other losses
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Assessment of Furnaces
Instruments to Assess Furnace Performance
Parameters to be measured
Furnace soaking zone temperature (reheating furnaces) Flue gas temperature

Location of measurement
Soaking zone and side wall

Instrument required
Pt/Pt-Rh thermocouple with indicator and recorder

Required Value
1200-1300oC

In duct near the discharge end, and entry to recuperator

Chromel Alummel Thermocouple with indicator

700oC max.

Flue gas temperature

After recuperator

Hg in steel thermometer

300oC (max)

Furnace hearth pressure in the heating zone

Near charging end and side wall over the hearth

Low pressure ring gauge

+0.1 mm of Wc

Oxygen in flue gas

In duct near the discharge end

Fuel efficiency monitor for oxygen and temperature

5% O2

Billet temperature

Portable

Infrared pyrometer or optical pyrometer

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Assessment of Furnaces Calculating Furnace Performance

Direct Method Thermal efficiency of furnace = Heat in the stock / Heat in fuel consumed for heating the stock Heat in the stock Q: Q = m x Cp (t1 t2)
Q = Quantity of heat of stock in kCal m = Weight of the stock in kg Cp= Mean specific heat of stock in kCal/kg oC t1 = Final temperature of stock in oC t2 = Initial temperature of the stock before it enters the furnace in oC
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Assessment of Furnaces

Calculating Furnace Performance

Direct Method - example
Heat in the stock Q = m x Cp (t1 t2) 6000 kg X 0.12 X (1340 40) 936000 kCal Efficiency = (heat input / heat output) x 100 [936000 / (368 x 10000) x 100 = 25.43% Heat loss = 100% - 25% = 75%
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m = Weight of the stock = 6000 kg Cp= Mean specific heat of stock = 0.12 kCal/kg oC t1 = Final temperature of stock = 1340 oC t2 = Initial temperature of the stock = 40 oC Calorific value of oil = 10000 kCal/kg Fuel consumption = 368 kg/hr

Assessment of Furnaces

Calculating Furnace Performance

Indirect Method
Heat losses
a) Flue gas loss b) Loss due to moisture in fuel c) Loss due to H2 in fuel d) Loss due to openings in furnace e) Loss through furnace skin Total losses = 57.29 % = 1.36 % = 9.13 % = 5.56 % = 2.64 % = 75.98 %

Furnace efficiency =
Heat supply minus total heat loss
100% 76% = 24%
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Assessment of Furnaces

Calculating Furnace Performance

Typical efficiencies for industrial furnaces
Furnace type 1) Low Temperature furnaces
a. 540 980 oC (Batch type) b. 540 980 oC (Continous type) c. Coil Anneal (Bell) radiant type d. Strip Anneal Muffle 20-30 15-25 5-7 7-12

Thermal efficiencies (%)

2) High temperature furnaces

a. Pusher, Rotary b. Batch forge 7-15 5-10

3) Continuous Kiln
a. Hoffman b. Tunnel 25-90 20-80

4) Ovens
a. Indirect fired ovens (20 oC 370 oC) b. Direct fired ovens (20 oC 370 oC) 35-40 35-40

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Energy Efficiency Opportunities Introduction

Type of furnaces and refractory materials

Assessment of furnaces

Energy efficiency opportunities

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Energy Efficiency Opportunities

1. Complete combustion with minimum excess air
2. Proper heat distribution 3. Operation at the optimum furnace temperature 4. Reducing heat losses from furnace openings

5. Maintaining correct amount of furnace draft

6. Optimum capacity utilization 7. Waste heat recovery from the flue gases

8. Minimize furnace skin losses

9. Use of ceramic coatings 10.Selecting the right refractories

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Energy Efficiency Opportunities

1. Complete Combustion with Minimum Excess Air

Importance of excess air
Too much: reduced flame temp, furnace temp, heating rate Too little: unburnt in flue gases, scale losses

Indication of excess air: actual air / theoretical combustion air Optimizing excess air
Control air infiltration Maintain pressure of combustion air Ensure high fuel quality Monitor excess air

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Energy Efficiency Opportunities

2. Proper Heat Distribution

When using burners
Flame should not touch or be obstructed

No intersecting flames from different burners

Burner in small furnace should face upwards but not hit roof

More burners with less capacity (not one big burner) in large furnaces
Burner with long flame to improve uniform heating in small furnace
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Energy Efficiency Opportunities

3. Operate at Optimum Furnace Temperature

Operating at too high temperature: heat loss, oxidation, decarbonization, refractory stress
Automatic controls eliminate human error
Slab Reheating furnaces Rolling Mill furnaces Bar furnace for Sheet Mill Bogie type annealing furnaces 1200oC 1200oC 800oC 650oC 750oC
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Energy Efficiency Opportunities

4. Reduce Heat Loss from Furnace Openings

Heat loss through openings
Direct radiation through openings Combustion gases leaking through the openings Biggest loss: air infiltration into the furnace

Energy saving measures

Keep opening small Seal openings Open furnace doors less frequent and shorter
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Energy Efficiency Opportunities

5. Correct Amount of Furnace Draft

Negative pressure in furnace: air infiltration

Maintain slight positive pressure

Not too high pressure difference: air ex-filtration

Heat loss only about 1% if furnace pressure is controlled properly!

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Energy Efficiency Opportunities

6. Optimum Capacity Utilization

Optimum load
Underloading: lower efficiency Overloading: load not heated to right temp

Optimum load arrangement

Load receives maximum radiation Hot gases are efficiently circulated Stock not placed in burner path, blocking flue system, close to openings

Optimum residence time

Coordination between personnel

Planning at design and installation stage

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Energy Efficiency Opportunities

7. Waste Heat Recovery from Flue Gases

Charge/Load pre-heating
Reduced fuel needed to heat them in furnace

Pre-heating of combustion air

Applied to compact industrial furnaces Equipment used: recuperator, selfrecuperative burner Up to 30% energy savings

Heat source for other processes

Install waste heat boiler to produce steam Heating in other equipment (with care!)
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Energy Efficiency Opportunities

8. Minimum Furnace Skin Loss

Choosing appropriate refractories
Increasing wall thickness Installing insulation bricks (= lower conductivity) Planning furnace operating times
24 hrs in 3 days: 100% heat in refractories lost 8 hrs/day for 3 days: 55% heat lost
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Energy Efficiency Opportunities

9. Use of Ceramic Coatings

High emissivity coatings Long life at temp up to 1350 oC Most important benefits
Rapid efficient heat transfer Uniform heating and extended refractory life Emissivity stays constant

Energy savings: 8 20%

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Energy Efficiency Opportunities

10. Selecting the Right Refractory

Selection criteria
Type of furnace Structural load of furnace

Type of metal charge

Presence of slag Area of application Working temperatures Extent of abrasion and impact

Stress due to temp gradient & fluctuations

Chemical compatibility Heat transfer & fuel conservation Costs
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