Steering Suspension

SUSPENSION
GENERAL
ROLE OF THE SUSPENSION
If a car is running on perfectly smooth, level road, it will receive hardly any shock from the surface of the road. However, since there are generally many holes and bumps in most roads, the car is continually subjected to road shock. If there were no preparations made to reduce this shock to a tolerable level, several problems would arise : the passengers would experience uncomfortable vibration, oscillation, and jolting. The vehicle would be difficult to handle and severe shock could damage the vehicle or the passengers as well as the baggage being carried. In order to improve both riding comfort and driving stability, an arrangement of springs and rods is therefore provided between the wheels and the vehicle body to reduce the amount of shock and oscillation that is transmitted directly to the body.
GENERAL
The suspension connects the body of the vehicle with the wheels, and carries out the following functions: - During driving, the suspension absorbs and damps the various vibrations, oscillations, and shocks from the road surface in accordance with tyres to protect the passenger and cargo to protect the passengers and cargo as well as to improve driving stability. - It transmits driving and braking force, which are generated due to friction between the road surface and the wheels, to the body. - It supports the body on the axles and maintains the proper geometrical relationship between the body and wheels.
GENERAL
SPRUNG WEIGHT AND UNSPRUNG WEIGHT
All of the weight of the body which is supported by vehicle springs is called sprung weight. This includes the body,frame,engine,transmission, and etc. on the other hand, unsprung weight is the weight of parts which is not supported by springs. This includes tires, wheels, axles and etc. The greater sprung weight of the vehicle is obtained, the better riding comfort becomes. Because the tendency to be affected by the shock or oscillation delivered from the road surface through the spring decreases as the sprung weight becomes larger.
GENERAL
SPRUNG WEIGHT AND UNSPRUNG WEIGHT
Sprung weight
Unsprung weight
Sprung weight
Unsprung weight
GENERAL
OSCILLATION OF SPRUNG WEIGHT
GENERAL
PITCHING Pitching is the up-and-down oscillation of the front and rear of the vehicle. This happens especially when the car goes over large ruts of bumps in the road or when going over an unpaved road which is rough and full of potholes Also, pitching occurs more easily in vehicles with softer springs than in those with harder springs.
GENERAL
ROLLING When turning or running on a bumpy road, the springs on one side of the vehicle expand, while those on the other side contract. This causes the vehicle body rolling in the side-to-side direction.
GENERAL
Bouncing Bouncing is the up-and-down movement of the whole vehicle body. When a car is running on an undulated surface with a high speed, bouncing is likely to occur. Also, it occurs easily when the springs are soft.
GENERAL
Yawing Yawing is a turning motion around the vertical axis of the vehicle.
SUSPENSION TYPE
Vehicles Atos Accent Lantra Tiburon Sonata EF Sonata XG 25, 30 H-1 H-100 Front suspension Macpherson strut with coil spring Macpherson strut with coil spring Macpherson strut with coil spring Macpherson strut with coil spring Macpherson strut with coil spring Double wishbone with stabilizer bar Double wishbone with stabilizer bar Double wishbone with a torsion bar in the upper arm Double wishbone with a torsion bar in the upper arm Rear suspension Torsion axle Dual link Dual link Dual link Multi link Multi link Multi link 5-link coil spring Leaf spring
MCPHERSON STRUT (FRONT)

Shock absorber Coil spring Stabilizer bar (Anti-roll bar)
ADVANTAGES Simple structure (Light, Low cost) More Engine room Little changes of tire alignment by the tolerance while installing parts DISADVANTAGES Limitation of a kinematic design of the suspension
Drive shaft
Tie rod
- Roll center height variation is big - Variation characteristics of Camber is inferior

L type lower arm
Camber rigidity is inferior Hard to reduce a hood height
MCPHERSON STRUT (FRONT)

* HMC Vehicle: Accent, New Accent(LC), Trajet, Centennial
DOUBLE WISHBONE (FRONT)

IN WHEEL TYPE
ADVANTAGES Flexibility of suspension design Easy to reduce hood height
DISADVANTAGES Inferiority of cost, weight and using the Engine-room space Big changes of tire alignment by the tolerance while installing parts Higher load on arms and a vehicle body when the distance between an upper arm and lower arm is small,
DOUBLE WISHBONE (FRONT)

HIGH-MOUNTED UPPER ARM TYPE (EF SONATA, XG)
ADVANTAGES Flexibility of suspension design (high performance) Better lateral stiffness
DISADVANTAGES Inferiority of cost, weight
MULTI LINK SYSTEM (FRONT)

* Vehicle: Audi A4, A6

* Vehicle: Mercedes-Benz S-class(99), MMC Eterna(92)

* Vehicle: Nissan Infiniti Q45(89), 300Z(88), Sunny(97), Maxima(98)

* Vehicle: Mazda Sentia, Kia Enterprise

ADVANTAGES High flexibility of suspension design Load distribution on vehicle body due to many link points - Riding improved Compatibility of riding and handling is possible. DISADVANTAGES Hard of optimal suspension design - High skill and experience Very affected by friction and hysterisis due to more bushings and joints - Riding is easy to be deteriorated Inferiority of the suspension rigidity
STRUT TYPE (DUAL LINK, REAR)

ADVANTAGES Simple structure, lightweight, cost-reduction Toe control is available DISADVANTAGES Limitation of Geometry control - Bump camber control is not easy - Roll center height variation is big Shock absorber installing parts is in the cabin (Noise into cabin)
TRAILING ARM (REAR)

ADVANTAGES Simple construction Superiority of trunk room Little change of Toe, Camber, Tread
DISADVANTAGES Inferiority of lateral rigidity Severe under-steering (Roll center is on the ground)
SEMI TRAILING ARM (REAR)
SEMI TRAILING ARM (REAR)

ADVANTAGES Simple construction Little change of Camber while rolling DISADVANTAGES Inferiority of lateral rigidity Inferiority of road surface shocks and noises Inferiority of the trace of wheels under the lateral/forward/backward force (Inferior of compliance, steering)
AXLE-BEAM TYPE WITH PARHARD ROD (REAR)
AXLE-BEAM TYPE WITH PARHARD ROD (REAR)

ADVANTAGES Simple construction Adjustable of camber by beam torsion - Enhanced turning ability DISADVANTAGES Inferiority of lateral rigidity - Compensated with a lateral link Inferiority of the un-sprung weight (inferior of riding) Difference between right and left turning characteristics Tread changes while up-down movement (inferior of straight driving) High floor height because of beam movement space
COUPLED TORSION BEAM TYPE (REAR)
COUPLED TORSION BEAM TYPE (REAR)

ADVANTAGES Adjustable turning geometry according to the section shape of a beam Simple structure High rigidity Superiority of riding (Reduced spring weight) DISADVANTAGES Higher weight than an axle-beam type Hard to keep an optimal tire condition under the lateral force and forward/reverse force
MULTI LINK BEAM AXLE SYSTEM (REAR)

* Vehicle: Nissan Sunny, Samsung SM5
DOUBLE WISHBONE (REAR)

High-Mounted Upper Arm type
ADVANTAGES Geometry control is good Roll center height can be optimized DISADVANTAGE Weight, cost, space is not good Inferior Cabin space
DOUBLE WISHBONE (IN WHEE TYPE, REAR)

* Vehicle: Audio A4 (4WD) ADVANTAGES Geometry control is good Roll center height can be optimized DISADVANTAGE Weight, cost, space is not good Inferior lateral rigidity
MULTI LINK SYSTEM (REAR)

* Vehicle: Mercedes-Benz 190E (82) ADVANTAGES High flexibility of suspension design Compatibility of riding and handling is possible. DISADVANTAGES Hard of optimal suspension design - High skill and experience High cost

* Vehicle: Nissan Silvia(89), Skyline, Infiniti Q45
5-LINK SYSTEM (REAR)

* Vehicle: BMW 7-Series Integral A(89)

* Vehicle: BMW 7-Series Integral B (99)

* Vehicle: BMW Integral suspension
Upper track control arm
Rear lower track control arm
Integral control arm Wheel support Front lower track control arm
el v tra
Longitudinal control arm
n io t c re i D
of

* Vehicle: Mercedes-Benz S-class (Rear)

* Vehicle: HMC EF Sonata, XG, MMC Eterna(94)

* Vehicle: HMC Sonata(95~98), Grandeur, Centennial, MMC Devonair

* Vehicle: Mazda Sentia(93), Kia Enterprise

* Vehicle: Mazda Luce(89~92), Kia Potentia
SUSPENSION TYPE
STABILIZER BAR
If only soft springs were used to improve riding comfort, the car body would lean out excessively during turns, due to centrifugal force. In cars with independent suspensions, this tendency is especially great. A stabilizer bar, which is a large U-shaped torsion bar, is therefore provided. Along with minimizing body roll during turns, it also improves the traction of the tires. Generally, in the case of the front suspension, both ends of the stabilizer are mounted on the lower suspension arm via rubber cushions and linkages, and the center section of the stabilizer is fixed to the frame or other structural member at two points via rubber bushings, and can pivot at these points. In addition, with the aim of reducing body roll and improving road holding on rough roads, stabilizer bars have recently come to be used not only in the front but also extensively in the rear.
SUSPENSION TYPE
Stabilizer link Stabilizer bar
SUSPENSION TYPE
SHOCK ABSORBERS
When a car is subjected to shock from the road surface, the suspension springs compress and expand to absorb those shocks. However, because springs have the characteristic of continuing to oscillate, and because it often takes a long time for this oscillation to stop, riding comfort will be bad unless some means is provided to damp this oscillation. This is the job of the shock absorbers or shocks. The shock absorbers not only absorb the excess oscillation of the spring, thus improving riding comfort, but they also give the tires better road-holding characteristics and improve steering stability.
SUSPENSION TYPE
TYPE OF SHOCK ABSORBERS
- Single-action shock absorber : damping occurs only when the shock absorber is extended. No damping force is generated when it is compressed.
Valve Fluid
Orifice
SUSPENSION TYPE
- Multiple-action shock absorber : Damping occurs both when the shock absorber is extended and compressed. Currently, most shock absorbers used on cars are of this type. Fluid Valve
Valve
SUSPENSION TYPE
- Twin-tube shock absorber : The cylinder is divided by the pressure tube and the outer tube into a working chamber (inner cylinder) and a reservoir chamber (outer cylinder). Reservoir chamber Working chamber Air Fluid
SUSPENSION TYPE
Construction of twin-tube type shock absorber Inside the absorber shell (outer tube) there is a cylinder (pressure tube), and inside that there is a piston which moves up and down. At the base of the piston rod, a piston valve is installed which generates damping force when the shock absorber is extended (during rebounding). At the bottom of the cylinder there is a base Rebound valve which generates damping force stopper when the shock absorber is compressed (during bounding). The inside of the cylinder is filled with absorber fluid, but only 2/3 of the reservoir chamber is filled with fluid, the rest being filled with air at atmospheric pressure.
Bumper stopper Oil seal Piston rod
Cylinder
Piston Base valve
SUSPENSION TYPE
: Operation a. During bounding (Compression) - Piston rods speed of motion high When the piston moves downward, the pressure in chamber A under the piston becomes high. The fluid pushes open the non-return valve of the piston valve, and with practically no resistance flows into chamber B (damping force is not generated). At the same time, an amount of fluid equal in volume to the volume of the fluid displaced by the piston rod as it is pushed into the cylinder, is forced through the leaf valve in the base valve and flows into the reservoir chamber. It is at this time that damping force is generated by the flow resistance. - Piston rods speed of motion low If the speed of the piston rod is very low, the non-return valve in the piston valve and the leaf valve in the base valve will both remain
SUSPENSION TYPE
PISTON ROD
closed because the pressure in chamber A is low. However, since there are orifices in the piston valve and the base valves, the fluid in chamber A flows through them into chamber B and the reservoir chamber, so that only a slight damping force is generated.
NON-RETURN VALVE
CHAMBER B NON-RETURN VLAVE ORIFICE PISTON & PISTON VALVE LEAF VALVE RESERVOIR CHAMBER CHAMVER A NON-RETURN VLAVE LEAF VALVE ORIFICE
LEAF VALVE
LEAF VALVE
PISTON VALVE
BASE VALVE
BASE VALVE
SUSPENSION TYPE
b. During rebounding (Expansion) - Piston rods speed of motion high When the piston rod is moving upward, the pressure in chamber above the piston becomes high and the fluid inside chamber B opens the leaf valve in the piston valve and flows into chamber opens the leaf valve in the piston valve and flows into chamber A. At this time, the flow resistance of the fluid acts as a damping force. Since the rod moves upward, a portion of it moves out of the cylinder, so the volume of fluid passes through the non-return valve of the base valve from the reservoir chamber and flows with practically no resistance into chamber A. - Piston rods speed of motion low When the piston rod is moving at a low speed, both the leaf valve in the piston valve and the non-return valve in the base valve remain closed because the pressure in chamber B above the piston is low.
SUSPENSION TYPE
PISTON ROD
Therefore, the fluid in chamber B passes through the orifices in the piston valve and flows into chamber A. Also, the fluid in the reservoir chamber passes through the orifice in the base valve and flows into chamber A. So only a slight damping force is generated.
NON-RETURN VALVE
CHAMBER B NON-RETURN VLAVE ORIFICE PISTON & PISTON VALVE LEAF VALVE RESERVOIR CHAMBER CHAMVER A NON-RETURN VLAVE LEAF VALVE
ORIFICE
LEAF VALVE
PISTON VALVE
BASE VALVE
BASE VALVE
FRONT SUSPENSION
1. GENERAL
A big difference between the front and rear suspensions is that the front wheels have to be steered. When a car corners or goes over bumps, it is subjected, via the wheels, to a variety of forces. The suspension must be able to prevent these forces from deflecting the car from the course selected by the driver. Also, it must not allow the wheels to wobble, move forward, backward and sideways, or alter their angle of tilt to any serious degree, as this would interfere with the handling of the car. Therefore, independent suspension is the Macpherson strut type suspension.
FRONT SUSPENSION
2. CONSTRUCTION
The strut type suspension is composed of the lower arms, strut bars, stabilizer bar and strut assemblies. The coil springs are mounted on the strut assembly, and the shock absorber is built into the strut assembly. One end of the lower arm is attached to the front side member via a rubber bushing, and can move freely up and down. The other end of mounted on the steering knuckle arm by means of a ball joint. Since the shock absorber acts as a part of the suspension linkage, besides being able to stand up to and absorb road shock and oscillation, it must also be strong enough to bear the vertical load that is placed on it. Its top end is mounted on the fender apron via the upper support, which is composed of a rubber cushion and a bearing. It can turn freely about its axis. The bottom end of the strut assembly is fastened to the steering knuckle arm with bolts. The strut bars withstand the force being exerted from the wheels in the longitudinal direction. One end is fastened to the lower arm and the other end is mounted via a rubber cushion to a strut bar bracket welded to the front cross member.
FRONT SUSPENSION
Rubber insulator
Coil spring Stabilizer link Stabilizer bar
Strut assembly
Dynamic damper
Center member
Lower arm
FRONT SUSPENSION
3. LOWER ARM
The compression type of lower arm is adopted, thus providing the following advantages. Prevents fore/aft compliance steering by optimizing the lower arm rotary shaft. Box-type cross-sectional construction for superior strength and light weight. Lower arm bushing A with insert plate and lower arm bushing B with nonsymmetrical spring characteristics in the vehicle lateral direction for steering stability and riding comfort. Spring-type lower arm ball joint has been adopted
FRONT SUSPENSION
a. Lower arm bushing A An insert plate is inserted (in the vehicle left/right direction) in the lower arm bushing A. As a result, lower arm bushing A has hard characteristics in the vehicle left/right direction, and has soft characteristics in the fore/aft direction and the twisting direction, which means that it functions to provide both steering stability and riding comfort.
FRONT SUSPENSION
Lower arm bushing (A) Lower arm bushing (B)
Lower arm ball joint (spring type)
FRONT SUSPENSION
b. Lower arm bushing B When the vehicle is traveling forward, there is a tendency for the back part of the lower arm to try to expand toward the outer side of the vehicle. The displacement of the lower arm at this time is suppressed by the hard characteristics and thereby steering stability is maintained. When the vehicle is traveling over bumps, a force is applied to push the tyres toward the rear and the rear part of the lower arm is pushed toward the inner side of the vehicle, but this is absorbed by the soft characteristics, thereby attenuating impact vibrations during travel over bumps.
FRONT SUSPENSION
During travel over bumps During forward travel
(external input)
Drive force
This force is suppressed by the hard characteristics This force I is absorbed by the soft characters
FRONT SUSPENSION
4. DRIVE SHAFT
There are two types of drive shaft combination. One is the Birfield joint (B. J.) - Tripod joint (T. J.) type, and the other is the Brifield joint (B. J.) Double offset joint (D. O. J.) type. Both types feature high power transmission efficiency and low vibration and noise. The knuckle has the wheel bearing assembled and the hub pressfitted. The drive shaft and hub are spline-coupled. It is high in transaxle efficiency and generates few vibrations and noise. A dynamic damper is incorporated in the BJ-TJ type and located between the BJ assembly and the TJ assembly reduce vibration during high speed driving.
FRONT SUSPENSION
DRIVE SHAFT
Knuckle Knuckle Hub T.J. Drive shaft Dynamic damper B.J. Wheel bearing D.O.J. Drive shaft B.J. Wheel bearing Hub
T.J. : TRIPOD JOINT B.J. : BIRFIELD JOINT D.O.J. : DOUBLE OFF-SET JOINT
FRONT SUSPENSION
B. J. / T. J. / D. O. J. B. J. is adopted on the wheel side of the shaft, as it can make large deflections when the tyre is steered and T. J. or D. O. J. is adopted on the transmission side, as it can slide axially to absorb the change in the distance between joints caused by motion the suspension. The inner race, outer race and cage of the B. J. are all different in shape between the B. J. and D. O. T. or T. J.. The B. J. allows the constant velocity characteristics to be maintained even at an angle of more than 45 degrees for the entire circumference of the shaft. The D. O. J. and T. J. allows the shaft to side approximately 38 mm maximum and also to take an angle of 22 degrees for the entire circumference.
FRONT SUSPENSION
B. J. / T. J. / D. O. J. WHEEL SIDE T/M SIDE
B.J. (Birfield joint)
D.O.J. (Double offset joint)
B.J. Dynamic damper
T.J. (Tripod joint)
FRONT SUSPENSION
FRONT SUSPENSION
5. OFFSET SPRING
Because struts are installed at an angle, the road surface reaction force (R1) applied to the tyres tends to act vertically upon the tyre center, and that force tries to bend the strut toward the inside of the vehicle. When this happens, the force trying to bend the strut toward the inside of the vehicle acts upon the strut bearing component as bending moment reaction force R3 (because the upper part of the strut is fixed in place), thus increasing the friction of the bearing, and, as a result of the bending of the strut, amplifying the moving resistance of the shock absorber. Moreover, because the coil springs installation position is such that its center is offset to a great degree (toward the outer side of the vehicle), and because the spring lower seat is installed at an angle so that the coil springs outer side is bent so as to be closely arranged without intervening spaces, the counteractive force of the spring becomes greater at the vehicle outer side, thereby resulting in the generation of bending moment R4,
FRONT SUSPENSION
which is opposite to bending moment r3 of the strut. As a result, the friction applied to the bearing within the strut is reduced, and the sliding resistance of the piston rod is also reduced, thus improving riding comfort.
R2
Coil spring
R4 R3
Spring counteractive force A B
Strut bend
A : Body outer side coil spring installation height B : Body inner side coil spring installation height R1 : Road surface reaction force R2 : Strut axial-reaction force R3 : Strut bend direction reaction force R4 : Strut bending force (by spring offset)
R1
Strut assembly
REAR SUSPENSION
1. GENERAL
In most vehicle, the rear suspension must carry most of the extra weight of the passengers and luggage. This leads to a difficult problem. If the suspension springs are made hard or stiff to handle this extra load, they will be too hard for the driver who drives alone. on the other hand, if soft, they will be too soft when the car is fully loaded. The same also applies to the shock absorbers. This problem can be solved by using coil springs or other types of leaf springs having a variable spring constant; oil-filled shock absorbers; different types of independent suspension.
REAR SUSPENSION
2. RIGID AXLE SUSPENSION
The rear ends of the suspension arms are welded to the axle beam, which houses the torsional bar. Both ends of the torsion bar are also welded to the same axle beam. When the wheels bound and rebound in opposite directions, the twisting movement of the ends of the trailing arm is translated into a twisting of the rear axle beam, built-in torsional bar and rear suspension arms. The twisting of the rear axle beam and stabilizer generates a reactive force which opposes the twisting of the suspension arms.
REAR SUSPENSION
Coil spring Lateral rod Shock absorber
Axle beam
Torsion bar
Rear hub Trailing arm
REAR SUSPENSION
3. AXLE STEER
When a car is cornering, the body tilts due to centrifugal force. Since the amount of flexure of the right and left suspension springs differs at this time, the direction of the wheels changes slightly and the result is the same as if the steering wheel were being turned that extra amount. This is called axle steer or roll steer. - Side force and cornering force The tread surface of a tyre rotating while slipping sideways develops small slips at the ground contact surface, which leads to generation of friction. This friction at the ground contact surface may be regarded as operating at one centralized point. This is called side force and acts at a point slightly separated away from the tyre center. When it is divided into vectors,the component at right angle to the direction of travel is called the cornering force. When a vehicle is travelling along a
REAR SUSPENSION
Vehicle traveling direction curve, it develops centrifugal force and centripetal force to overcome this centrifugal force is necessary for the vehicle to keep cornering. The force corresponding to such a centripetal force is the cornering force. Side slip angle
Cornering force Side force
REAR SUSPENSION
- Rigid axle suspension On a rigid axle suspension, when the body rolls, the camber of the wheels does not change. However, in the case of an independent suspension, when the body rolls, the camber of the wheels with respect to the road surface usually changes, creating a steering effect.
Angle of roll
Centrifugal force
REAR SUSPENSION
- Wishbone type suspension On the wishbone type, when the vehicle body is rolling, the wheels tilt in the same direction as the body does. Therefore, the wheels try to go in a direction opposite to the direction the vehicle is being turned in. As a result, if the wishbone type suspension is used for the front suspension, the vehicle has a tendency to understeer, but if it is used for the rear suspension, oversteering tends to occur. Centrifugal force Angle of roll
REAR SUSPENSION
SUSPENTION BUSHING
In order to improve both the driving stability and riding comfort even further, and to reduce vibration and noise, the optimum spring characteristic has been employed for each suspension bushing. The front end of the trailing arm is elastically coupled to the body via a rubber bushing of high spring capacity. This rubber bushing has an asymmetrical non-linear characteristic in the front-rear direction, and therefore functions to reduce the transmission of tyre vibration input to the body itself. Individual independent bushings (with nonlinear characteristics) are also employed at the coupling to the body of the shock absorbers and the coil springs; these, together with the use of spring pads with large channels, serve to reduce the transmission of vibrations to the body, thereby improving even further the driving stability and riding comfort.
REAR SUSPENSION
SUSPENTION BUSHING
Shock absorber bushing Bushing A Bushing B
Spring pad
Lateral rod bushing
Rubber bushing Arm bushing
WHEEL ALIGNMENT
Contents
DESCRIPTION CAMBER CASTER STEERING AXIS INCLINATION TOE WHEEL ANGLE, TURNING ANGLE WHEEL ALIGNMENT SERVICE
DESCRIPTION
If a driver were required to expend a lot of energy to run the vehicle on curves, he would be under a great physical and mental strain. The wheels are installed on the body, at certain angles in accordance with certain requirements to eliminate these problems, as well as to prevent early wearing of tyres. These angles,in combination, are called wheel alignment. Steering is easy as long as the wheels are aligned properly, because the steering wheel will remain in a straight ahead position on straight roads with little help from the driver and will require little effort to turn on curve - in other words, steering is easy when all of the elements that make up the angular relationship called wheel alignment, are proper. But if even one of these elements are incorrect, the following problems can occur :
Difficult steering Shortened tyre life
Poor steering stability Poor recovery on curves
CAMBER
1. DESCRIPTION
The front wheels of the car are installed with their tops tilted outward or inward. This is called camber and is measured in degrees of tilt from the vertical. When the top of a wheel is tilted outward, it is called positive camber. Conversely, inward inclination is called negative camber. Negative 0 + negative
camber
90
CAMBER
2. PROBLEMS CUASED BY INCORRCT CAMBER
1. Vehicle pulls to one side (with excessively unequal camber settings on front wheels). 2. Rapid wear on inside of tyre tread (caused by excessive negative camber). 3. Rapid wear on outside of tyre tread (caused by excessive positive camber). 4. Increased wear on the wheel bearings. 5. Increased wear on ball joints (incorrect camber creates increased leverage on spindle and spindle support resulting in increased loads on ball joints).
CAMBER
3. POSITIVE CAMBER
Reduction of vertical load

Giving the wheel positive camber causes the load to be applied to the inner side of the spindle, reducing the force acting on the spindle and the steering knuckle.
CAMBER
Prevention of wheel slip-off
The reactive force, which is equal in size to the vehicle load, is applied to the wheel perpendicularly to the road. this is divided into perpendicular force to the axis of the spindle and parallel force to the axis of the spindle which forces the wheel inward, helping to prevent the wheel from slipping off the spindle. The inner wheel bearing is made larger than the outer one in order to bear this load.
Prevention of undesirable negative camber
When a load is applied to the vehicle, the tops of the wheels tend to tilt inward due to the deformation of the suspension components and relevant bushings. Positive camber also helps to prevent this.
CAMBER
4. ZERO CAMBER
It prevents uneven wear of tyres.
CAMBER
5. NEGATIVE CAMBER
When a vehicle turns a corner, the camber thrust on the outside tyres acts to reduce the cornering force due to the increase in positive camber. Some vehicle models add a slightly negative camber for straight ahead driving so that the positive camber will be reduced during turning, reducing the camber thrust and yielding sufficient cornering force for the turn.
CAMBER
6. UNEVEN WEAR OF TYRE Positive camber :
The outer side of the tyre wears. The outside of the tyre turns on a shorter radius than the inside of the tyre. However, because the rotational speed of the tyre is the same on the inner and outer sides, the outer side of the tyre must slip on the ground while it waits for the inner side to catch up with it.
Negative camber
The inside of the tyre is becoming worn more quickly.
CASTER
1. DESCRIPTION
Caster is the forward or backward tilt of the steering axis. Caster is measured in degrees from the steering axis to vertical as viewed from the side. Backward tilt from the vertical line is called positive caster, while forward tilt is called negative caster. The distance from the intersection of the steering axis center line with the ground, to the center of the tyre to road contact area, is called caster trail. Negative Positive Caster
Front
CASTER
2. PURPOSE OF CASTER
1. To aid in the directional control of the vehicle by helping the front wheels maintain a straight ahead position. 2. To help return the front wheels to straight ahead position after a turn. 3. To offset the effects of road crown on vehicle direction. 4. To operate in concert with the vehicle suspension design, camber angle and steering axis inclination angle to provide the desired camber change during vehicle turns.
STEERING AXIS INCLINATION

1. DESCRIPTION
The axis around which the wheel rotates as it turns to the right or left, is called the steering axis. This axis is found by drawing an imaginary line between the top of the shock absorbers upper support bearing and the lower suspension arm ball joint (in the case of strut type suspensions). This line is tilted inward as viewed from the front of the car and is called the steering axis inclination. Kingpin offset, or steering offset, is the distance between the wheel center and the point at which the steering axis intersects the road surface. It is negative when the point of intersection is between the center and the outside of the wheel. The kingpin angle is the angle between the steering axis and the vehicles longitudinal plane. It influences steering force along with caster.

b
a: Kingpin offset b: Kingpin angle

2. SUSPENSION TYPES
Steering axis
Rigid type and steering axis

With rigid axle suspensions, a part called a kingpin is included at each end of the axle. The kingpin axis is equivalent to the steering axis of other types of suspension.
Kingpin

Steering axis
Double wishbone type

In the case of the double wishbone suspension, the line connecting the upper ball joint and the lower ball joint forms the steering axis.
Upper ball joint
Lower ball joint

3. ROLES OF STEERING AXIS INCLINATION Reduction of steering effort
Since the wheel turns to the right and left with the steering axis as its center and the offset as the radius, a large offset will generate a great moment around the steering axis due to the rolling resistance of the tyre, thus increasing steering effort.
Reduction of pulling to one side

If the offset is too large, the reactive forces acting on the wheels during driving of braking, will generate a moment around the relevant steering axis, causing the wheel to pull to the side. This moment is proportional to the size of the offset. As the offset approaches zero, less moment is generated around the steering axis when a force is applied to the wheel, and the steering is less influenced by braking or road shock

Improving straight line ability
: The steering axis inclination causes the wheels to automatically return to the straight ahead position after the completion of turning. In front wheel drive cars, the offset is generally kept small (zero or negative), to prevent the transmission to the steering wheel of shock from the tyres generated during braking or by striking an obstruction and to minimize the moment created around the steering axis by the driving force at the time of quick starting or acceleration. - Two methods to make the offset small 1. Give the tyres positive camber. 2. Incline the steering axis.
TOE
When the front of the wheels are closer together than the rear of the wheels, as viewed from above, this is called toe-in. The opposite arrangement is called toe-out. The angle is usually expressed by a distance (b-a).
a
TOE - IN :a<b
Front
TOE - OUT : a > b
TOE
Role of toe angle
The main function of toe angle is to cancel out the camber thrust generated when camber is applied. When the front wheels are given positive camber, they tilt outward at the top. This causes them to attempt to roll outward as the car moves forward, and therefore to side-slip. This subjects the tyres to wear. Therefore, toe-in is provided for the front wheels to prevent this by canceling outward rolling due to camber. Since camber approaches zero in most recent vehicles, the toe angle value is also becoming smaller.
Suspension rigidity and toe angle

During driving, forces from various direction are brought to bear on the suspension, with the result that the wheels tend to toe out. In order to prevent this, some vehicles are given a slight toe-in even when the camber is zero.
TOE
Type of tyres and toe angle
The toe angle given to bias-ply tyres differ from that given to radial-ply tyres, even when the camber is the same. The reason is that, since the tread and shoulder of a bias-ply tyre are subject to greater deformation than those of a radial-ply tyre, the former type generates greater camber thrust. Therefore, bias-ply tyres are given more toe angle than radial-ply tyres.
TURNING RADIUS
If the right and left steering angles were the same, they would have the same turning radius (r1 = r 2), but each wheel would turn around a different center, (O1 and O2). Smooth turning would therefore be impossible due to side-slipping of the tyres. The result is that, even though the air pressure in each of the tyres might be equal, and even though1 the other wheel alignment factors might be correct, the tyres would undergo unusual wear. r1 r2 = r1 = r 2
O1
O2
TURNING RADIUS
In an actual vehicle, the steering linkage is modified in such a way that the proper steering angles of the left and right front wheels are attained, to achieve the desired turning radii.
r2 r1 < r1 > r 2
WHEEL ALIGNMENT SERVICE

1. GENERAL
If the tyres are worn unevenly, if steering is unstable, or if the suspension has had to be repaired due to an accident, the wheel alignment must be inspected and corrected. Wheel alignment covers several items such as camber, caster, steering axis inclination, toe-in and each item is closely related to the other items. Always measure the wheel alignment with the vehicle parked on a flat, level area. This is necessary because, no matter how accurate the alignment tester is, correct values cannot be obtained if the place where the measurements are to be carried out is not level.

2. INSPECTION BEFORE MEASUREMENT
Before measuring the wheel alignment, each factor that could affect the wheel alignment, must be checked and necessary corrections made. Proper execution of this preparatory operation will give the correct values. Items to be checked before the measurement of wheel alignment are : * Tyre inflation pressure (under standard condition) * Uneven wear of tyres or difference in tyre sizes * Ball joint play due to wear * Tie rod end play due to wear * Front wheel bearing play due to wear * Lengths of left and right strut bars * Deformation or wear of steering linkage parts * Deformation or wear of parts related to front suspension * Chassis-to-ground clearance

3. MEASURING RESULTS AND HOW TO USE THEM
In the case of factors for which there are adjustment mechanisms, make corrections using those mechanism. In the case of factors for which there are no adjustment mechanisms, such as steering axis inclination, find the part which is faulty, then replace or repair it. However, even in the case of factors with adjustment mechanisms, if the deviation exceeds the adjustment range of the adjustment mechanism, the faulty part must be found and either replaced or repaired.
FRONT WHEEL ALIGNMENT SERVICE

4. FRONT WHEEL ALIGNMENT
TOE ANGLE To adjust toe-in, change the lengths of the tie rod connecting the steering knuckle. - In the type in which the tie rod is behind the spindles : increasing the tie rod length, increases toe-in. - In the type where the tie rod is in front of the spindles : increasing the tie rod length, increases toe-out.
Short
Long
REAR WHEEL ALIGNMENT SERVICE

5. REAR WHEEL ALIGNMENT
Rear wheel alignment of an independent rear suspension is accomplished by adjusting the camber and toe angle. The method of adjusting the camber and toe angle differs depending on the type of suspension. Some models have no mechanism for adjusting the camber. TOE ANGLE By turning the eccentric cam, the arm can be moved to the left or right to change the direction of the wheel, thus adjusting the toe-in. The scale has gradations of approximately 2.4 mm (0.09 in.)
REAR WHEEL ALIGNMENT SERVICE

As with front toe-in, if the length of the rear arms are not made the same in order to adjust the toe-in of the rear wheels separately, the angles of the left and right wheels will differ no matter how correct the toe-in is. For this reason, first of all, correct the angles of the left and right wheels, then adjust the toe-in. Front
a = (correct)
TYRE & WHEELS
TYRE & WHEELS

FUNCTION OF TYRE
Tyres perform the following functions : - The tyres support the overall weight of the vehicle. - The tyres directly contact the road surface and therefore transmit the vehicles driving and braking forces to the road, thus controlling starting, accelerations, stopping and turning. - The tyres reduce shock caused by irregularities in the road surface.
TYRE & WHEELS

CONSTUCTION
Tread Shoulder Belt Under Tread Side Wall Inner Liner Carcass
Rim
TYRE & WHEELS

CONSTUCTION
- CARCASS Carcass is the inner cord of the tyre which supports the weight and absorbs impact. It consists of layers of tyre cords bonded together with rubber. The cords in bus and truck tyres are generally made of nylon or steel, while passenger car tyres use polyester or nylon. Tyres are generally classified, according to the direction of the cords, into radial and bias ply types. - TREAD The tread is an external rubber layer protecting the carcass from wear and external damage caused by the road surface. It is the part that directly contacts the road and generates the frictional resistance which transmits the vehicles driving and braking forces to the road.
TYRE & WHEELS

CONSTUCTION
- SIDE WALL Side wall is rubber layer which cover the side of the tyre and protect the carcass from external damage. The M flexible tyre constituents, they continuously flex under the loads applied during travel. - BREAKER The breaker, a fabric layer between the carcass and the tread, reinforces the adhesion between the two, while helping to reduce the shocks passed from the road to the carcass. Breakers are commonly used in bias-ply tyres. Tyres for buses, trucks and light trucks use nylon breakers, those for passenger cars are polyester.
TYRE & WHEELS

CONSTUCTION
- BELT These are a type of breaker used in radial-ply tyres. Running like a hoop along the tyre circumference between the carcass and the tread rubber, they hold the carcass securely in place. Tyres for passenger cars use rigid breakers constructed of steel, rayon or polyester cords, while those for buses and trucks are fabricated of steel cords. - BEADS The beads in passenger car tyres are made of high-tensile steel wires. As a tyre rotates when traveling on a highway, the force of the tyre spinning attempts to throw the tyre off the rim. The bead fixes the tyre to the rim by winding the end of cord. It is composed of bead wire and core rubber.
TYRE & WHEELS

CONSTUCTION
- SHOULDER Shoulder indicates the part form the end of the tread to the upper part of side wall. - INNER LINER Inner liner is special air proof rubber laid which is attached inside of the tyre instead of tube.
TYRE & WHEELS

TREAD PATTERN
RIB-shape : The pattern along the circumference of circle
- Lower resistance against rotating. - Good for stability and operating because of not skidding right and left. - Suitable for high-speed owing to low generation of heat. - Weak breaking & driving power on the raining road. - The crack happens easily by the stress.
For paved-road, and the front wheel of truck -bus. LUG-shape : At the right angle to the circumference of circle
- Superior braking & driving power - Noisy at the high-speed driving It is not suitable for high-speed driving because of highresistance against revolving.
For dirt road, and the rear wheel of bus, industrial vehicles, dump trucks.
TYRE & WHEELS

TREAD PATTERN
RIB-LUG shape : The combination of RIB-shape & LUG-shape
- The rib in the center prevents from slipping and improves the stability for driving. - Rug of shoulder makes the braking & driving power remain good.
Good for paved-road and dirt road. Usually used in the front & rear wheel of truck and bus. Block-shape : The pattern of independent block which the groove is connected each other
- Excellent in steering and steering and stability on the snow covered road and raining road. - Easily worn-out because the area is wide which the groove uphold.
Suitable for motorcar for winter or four seasons. Suitable for rear wheel of Radial tyre of ordinary car.
TYRE & WHEELS

TREAD PATTERN
Direction pattern : The pattern which the crossing groove of both outside is toward same direction. - The braking power is great. - Due to the good negative hydrotropism, the stability is excellent on the raining road. - Proper for high-speed driving. Motor car tyre for high speed. The mounting direction of tyre is fixed toward driving directions.
TYRE & WHEELS

ASPECT RATIO
Tyre width(W) Section height (H)
Sub- name
Outer diameter Tyre size Rim diameter Trade mark
TYRE & WHEELS

TYRE SIZE
Aspect ratio is the ratio of the width to height. In the past, 100 type which the width and height is same was mainly produced, but nowadays aspect ratio of 80, 70, 60 type of the tyres are produced. That means, recently, the wider tyres are used more. And the width is represented as the series, so if the tyre has width ratio of 70, it is called series 70.
TYRE & WHEELS

TYRE SIZE
Section width : 225mm Load Index
Speed Rating Index
Aspect ratio R : radial
Wheel diameter
TYRE & WHEELS

SPEED RATING INDEX
Speed symbols signify the safe top speed of a tire under perfect conditions. Common speed ratings are: Q = 99 MPH, 160km/h R = 106MPH, 170km/h S = 112 MPH, 180km/h T = 118 MPH, 190km/h U = 124 MPH, 200km/h H = 130 MPH, 210km/h V = 149 MPH, 240km/h W = 168 MPH, 270km/h
LOAD INDEX
Many tyres come with a service description added on the end of the tyre size. These service descriptions contain a number, which is the load index, and a letter which indicates the speed rating. The load index represents the maximum load each tyre is designed to support.
TYRE & WHEELS

LOAD INDEX (kg)
INDEX 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 LOAD 257 265 272 280 290 300 307 315 325 335 INDEX 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 LOAD 345 355 365 375 387 400 412 425 437 450 INDEX 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 LOAD 462 475 487 500 515 530 545 560 580 590 INDEX 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 LOAD 615 630 650 670 690 710 730 750 775 800 INDEX 101 102 103 104 105 LOAD 825 850 875 900 925
TYRE & WHEELS

GENERATION OF HEAT BY TYRES
Since the rubber, ply cords and other major tyre constituents are not completely elastic, they sustain greater hysteresis loss because they absorb energy during tyre flexure and convert it into heat. Since these materials are poor heat conductors, they are incapable of quickly dissipating the heat generated so heat accumulates inside the material of the tyre, causing the tyres internal temperature to rise. Excessive heat build-up weakens the bonds between the layers of rubber and tyre cords, eventually leading to separation of the layers or even bursting of the tyre. The heat build-up inside the tyre varies with such factors as inflation pressure, load, vehicle speed, tread groove depth and tyre construction. INFLATION PRESSURE Since the tyre is more flexible the lower the inflation pressure, excessively
TYRE & WHEELS

low inflation pressure causes the tyre to flex more and the internal friction To increase, raising the tyres internal temperature. LOAD Increasing to the load is similar to reducing the inflation pressure. The tyres internal temperature rises since it is made to flex more. At the same time, extra loads are applied to the tyre beads and shoulders - loads which can lead to separation or bursting. VEHICLE SPEED The internal temperature rises in accordance to the vehicle speed since the tyre is forced to flex more quickly.
TYRE & WHEELS

TYRE CONSTRUCTION The radial-ply has rigid belts that securely hold the the carcass so that the Tread coming into contact with the road surface is less susceptible to deformation. Because the belts reduce tread flexure, the tyre generates less heat and the tyre temperature stays lower than for bias-ply tyres. Steel radial-ply tyres also radiate more heat since the steel-ply cord layers provide greater heat conductivity.
TYRE & WHEELS

BRAKING PERFORMANCE
Automobiles decelerate and stop by generating friction between the tyres and the road surface. The amount of braking force generated depends on the road surface condition, tyre type, tyre construction and other conditions under which the tyres operate. The braking performance of a tyre is evaluated by its friction coefficient. The smaller the value, the less friction the tyre generates and the longer the braking distance (the distance the vehicle travels from the moment the brake pedal is first depressed until the vehicle comes to a complete stop). TYRE WEAR AND BRAKING DISTANCE Tyre wear does not greatly affect the braking distance on a dry road surface. On a wet road surface, however, the braking distance is considerably longer. Braking performance is poor because the tread pattern has worn down to the point where it cannot drain off the water between the tread and the road surface, leading to hydroplaning.
TYRE & WHEELS

STANDING WAVE
When the vehicle is in motion, the tyre continuously flexes as a new section of the tread comes into contact with the road surface. Later, when this section leaves the road surface, the pressure of the air inside the tyre and the elasticity of the tyre attempts to restore the tread and carcass to their original stage. At higher vehicle speeds, however, the tyre rotates too quickly to allow enough time for this. This process, continually repeated at such short intervals, gives rise to oscillations in the tread. These oscillations, which are referred to as standing waves, continuously propagate around the tyre. The majority of the energy locked up in the standing waves is converted into heat, which sharply raises the tyre temperature. Under certain circumstances, this heat build-up can even destroy the tyre within a few minutes by leading to separation of the tread from the carcass.
TYRE & WHEELS

STANDING WAVE
Generally, the radial-ply tyre is withstand higher vehicle speeds since its carcass ,which is held by the rigid belts, is less subject to deformation. Tyres for buses, trucks and light trucks have few problems with standing waves since such vehicles travel at lower speeds and use higher inflation pressures.
TYRE & WHEELS

HYDROPLANING
A vehicle skids on a water-covered road if the vehicle speed is too high to allow the tread enough time to remove the water from the road surface so that it can get a firm grip. The reason for this is that, as the vehicle speed increase, the resistance of the water increases accordingly, forcing the tyres to float on the waters surface. This phenomenon is known as hydroplaning. This effect is similar to water-skiing ; the water skier sinks at low speeds, but starts to glide across the water as his speed increases. The tread coming into contact with the road surface may be divided into the following three zones :
Forward direction A Contact area B C
TYRE & WHEELS

HYDROPLANING
A: DRAIN ZONE Pushes the water aside or pumps it through the zig-zag grooves and channels in the tread. WIPE ZONE The remaining film of water is mopped up. GRIP ZONE (FRICTION ZONE) The tread pattern grips the remainder of the now dry contact area.
B: C:
At lower speeds, Zone C is at its widest so that the tyre securely grips the road, generating sufficient friction between the tread and the road surface. As the vehicle accelerates, tyre friction decreases since Zone A gradually expands at the expense of Zones B and C. The vehicle is more likely to hydroplane if the water is deeper than 2.5 ~ 10.0 mm.
TYRE & WHEELS

HYDROPLANING
Step 1 : The tread is in complete contact with the road surface.
Tyre
Step 2 : A wedge-shaped film of water gradually penetrates between the tread and the road surface. (partial hydroplaning) Step 3 : The tread is completely lifted off the road surface (complete hydroplaning)
Tyre
Tyre
TYRE & WHEELS

HYDROPLANING
Hydroplaning can not only cause loss of steering control, but can reduce or nullify braking effectiveness, causing the driver to loose control of the vehicle. Needless to say, this would be extremely hazardous, so the following precautions should be taken to prevent hydroplaning : 1. Do not use a tyre with a worn tread. As the tire wears, the tread reaches a point where the tread grooves cannot drain off the water between the tyre and the road fast enough to prevent hydroplaning. 2. Reduce speed on water covered road surface, because higher speeds in effect increase the resistance of water and induce hydroplaning. 3. Raise the inflation pressure. A higher tyre pressure opposes the pressure of the water trying to force itself under the tread and thus delays the onset of hydroplaning.
BRAKE SYSTEM
CORNERING PERFORMANCE
Cornering is always accompanied by centrifugal force, which tries to force the vehicle to turn in a larger arc than intended by the driver unless the vehicle can generate a sufficient counterforce, that is, centripetal force, to balance this. This centripetal force is generated by the deformation and side-slipping on the tread that occurs due to friction between the tyre and the road surface. This is called cornering force.
Centrifugal force
Centripetal force (cornering force)
BRAKE SYSTEM
CORNERING PERFORMANCE
This cornering force stabilizes the vehicle during cornering. The vehicles cornering performance varies with: 1. Tyre specification 2. Load applied to the tread of the contact area (cornering force increases with the load) 3. Tyre size (cornering force increases with tire size) 4. Road surface conditions (cornering force drops rapidly if the road is wet or covered with snow) 5. Inflation pressure (cornering force increases as the tire becomes more rigid under high pressure) 6. Wheel camber (cornering force reduces in positive camber) 7. Rim width (wider tyres are more rigid and thus produce a greater cornering force)
TYRE & WHEELS

TYRE WEAR
Tyre wear is the loss of or damage to tread and other rubber surfaces due to friction generated when the tyre slips on the road. It varies with inflation pressure, load, vehicle speed, baking, road surface conditions, temperature and other factors. INFLATION PRESSURE Insufficient inflation pressure accelerates tyre wear by allowing the tread to flex excessively as it contacts the road.
110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 100 95 90
Durability index (%) standard inflation pressure = 100
85 80
75
70
65 60
55
50
Inflation pressure (%) standard = 100
TYRE & WHEELS

TYRE WEAR
LOAD A higher load accelerates tyre wear in much the same way as a reduction in inflation pressure does. The tyre also wears more quickly during cornering when the vehicle is heavily loaded because the greater centrifugal force during cornering causes the vehicle to generate greater cornering force thus generating greater friction between the tyre and the road surface.
Durability index (%) durability under proper load = 100
220 200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 70 80 90 100 110 120130 140 150 160
Load (%) proper load = 100
TYRE & WHEELS

TYRE WEAR
VEHICLE SPEED The driving and braking forces, the centrifugal force at cornering, and the other forces acting on the tyre, increase in proportion to the square of the vehicle speed. Raising the vehicle speed therefore greatly multiplies these forces, increases the friction generated between the tread and the road surface and thus accelerates tyre wear. In addition to these factors, the condition of the road also has a great influence on tyre wear. A rough road will obviously cause a tyre to wear faster than a smooth road.
TYRE & WHEELS

AIR PRESSURE
The air pressure inside the tyre is what supports the car. The tyre is basically just a container to put the air in. The correct air pressure is required for good handling, traction and durability. Since air is a gas, it contracts when cooled. For every 10 degrees fahrenheit (about 5.5) change in ambient temperature, tyre's inflation pressure will change by about 1 psi. It will go down with lower temps, and up with higher temps. The typical difference between summer and winter temperatures, is about 50 degrees F (about 28), which results in a loss of about 5 psi and will sacrifice handling, traction, durability and safety. The tyre pressure recommended is a "cold" pressure, so it should be checked you drive the car more than a few miles. Keep in mind that tyres tend to lose about 1 psi per month, so check them often.
TYRE & WHEELS

TYRE ROTATION
Tyre rotation can be beneficial in several ways. When done at the recommended times, it can preserve balanced handling and traction of the tyres and even out tyre wear. It can even provide performance advantages. When should tyres be rotated ? We recommend that high performance tyres be rotated every 3,000 to 5,000 miles, even if they don't show signs of wear. Tire rotation can often be done with oil change intervals while the vehicle is off the ground anyway. Remember, tire rotation can't correct wear problems due to worn mechanical parts or incorrect inflation pressures. On front wheel drive cars, rotate the tyres in a forward cross pattern (fig. A) or the alternative X pattern (fig. B). On rear wheel or four wheel drive vehicles, rotate the tyres in a rearward cross pattern (fig. C) or the alternative X pattern (fig. B).
TYRE & WHEELS

TYRE ROTATION
Front wheel drive vehicle
Rear wheel drive, or Four wheel drive vehicle
Front wheel drive, or Rear wheel drive, or Four wheel drive vehicle
TYRE & WHEELS

SIDE-SLIP MEASUREMENT
Side-slip is the total distance that the left and right tyres slip to the side while the vehicle is in motion. Side-slip is measured with a side-slip tester during straight ahead driving at a very low speed. Side-slip is generally expressed as the amount of sideways slippage, in mm per 1m of forward motion. The purpose of measuring side-slip is to be able to make an overall judgement of wheel alignment with the vehicle running straight ahead. The cause of side-slip is mainly incorrect camber or toe-in, but it is also important to pay attention to caster and steering axis inclination. Measuring procedure : - Drive the vehicle onto the side-slip tester slowly and straight forward. - Read the side-slip indication as the wheels cross over the tester. Side- slip limit : Less than 3 mm/m (0.118 in/ 3.28 ft) If the side-slip exceeds the limit, the toe-in or other front wheel alignment factors may not be correct.
TYRE & WHEELS

WHEEL BALANCE
A balanced tire is when the mass of the tire is uniformly distributed around the axle. An out of balance tyre can adversely affect ride quality, shorten the life of tyres, bearings, shocks and other suspension components. If you have a vibration that is dependent on speed and increases as vehicle speed increases, it is probably balance related. The other primary cause of vibrations is that the tyre and wheel assembly is not perfectly round. The problem is when the high spot on the tyre, and the high spot on the wheel end up being matched to each other. This effectively doubles the amount of "hop" or run-out. At high speeds, and unbalanced wheel assembly, (disc wheel plus tyre), can create vibrations which are transmitted to the body through suspension components, causing annoyance to the driver and passenger. Therefore, it is necessary to balance the wheel assemblies properly in order to eliminate such vibrations and this operations is what is called wheel balancing.
TYRE & WHEELS

Q&A
Problem : The one part of the side wall is protruding to become inflating like lump. Cause : - Impact has done to tread, shoulder or side wall. Carcass cord has been cut by the impact so the impact mark is seen projecting like lump to the external from tire. - If the automobile goes over the bump of road. - If the tire is depressed and the tire is jamming into the sidewall on tire and road obstacles. Prevention : - If there is bump on the road, avoid it but incase of you can not avoid it, slow down to pass it over. - Always check the air pressure so that the tire has proper pressure.
TYRE & WHEELS

Q&A
Problem : It is hard to control, accelerates, and stop on the heavily wet road. Cause : When driving on the heavily wet road, because of the resistance of the water the tire is slipping on the water. This is called "Hydro Planning". With this phenomenon, it is hard to control the car and also accelerating and braking becomes impossible. This phenomenon is intensified with deep water, low air pressure, and low groove of the tread. Prevention : Keeping the proper air pressure : More air pressure, more ground pressure. Therefore inflate the tire 3~4psi more, when driving on the highway. Tire worn out : Hydro Planning is intensified with low groove of the tire tread. Not to use the tire which has groove of tread lower than 1.6mm. Tread Pattern and driving speed Tire with same direction of the tread as the direction of the car has more draining capacity. And avoid the water when driving at high speed.
TYRE & WHEELS

Q&A
Problem : The one side of the tread shoulder is worn out more. Cause : Bad wheel alignment, tire change has not done since long time, crooked axle, low air pressure, over load. Prevention : - Adjust wheel alignment. - Change the tyre location. - Repair the mechanic problem - Keep proper air pressure and proper load.
HYDRAULIC FUNDAMENTALS
PASCALs Law In the early seventeenth century, Pascal, a French scientist, discovered the hydraulic lever. Through controlled laboratory experiments, he proved that force and motion could be transferred by means of a confined liquid. Further experimentation with weights and pistons of varying size, Pascal also found that mechanical advantage or force multiplication could be obtained in a hydraulic pressure system, and that the relationships between force and distance were exactly the same as with a mechanical lever. From the laboratory data that Pascal collected, he formulated Pascals Law, which states : Pressure on a confined fluid is transmitted equally in all directions and acts with equal force on equal areas. This law is a little complex to completely understand as it stands right now. The following illustrations and explanations break down each concept and discuss them thoroughly enough for easy understanding and retention.
PASCALs Law
100 kgf 10 kgf
Area : 1m2
Area : 10m2
P1=10kgf/m2
Hydraulic fluid
Force A simplified definition of the term force is : the push or pull exerted on an object. There are two major kinds of forces : friction and gravity. The force of gravity is nothing more than the mass, or weight of an object. In other words, if a steel block weighing 100 kg is sitting on the floor, then it is exerting a downward force of 100 kg on the floor. The force of friction is present when two objects attempt to move against one another. If the same 100 kg block were slid across the floor, there is a dragging feeling involved. This feeling is the force of friction between the block and the floor. When concerned with hydraulic valves, a third force is also involved. This force is called spring force. Spring force is the force a spring produces when it is compressed or stretched. The common unit used to measure this or any force is the kilogram (kg), or a division of the kilogram such as the gram (g).
Pressure Pressure is nothing more than force (kg) divided by area (m 2), or force per unit area. Given the same 100kg block used above and an area of 10m2 on the floor ; the pressure exerted by the block is : 100kg/10m 2 or 10kg per square meter. Pressure On a Confined Fluid Pressure is exerted on a confined fluid by applying a force to some given area in contact with the fluid. A good example of this would be if a cylinder is filled with a fluid, and a piston is closely fitted to the cylinder wall having a force applied to it, thus, pressure will be developed in the fluid. Of course, no pressure will be created if the fluid is not confined. It will simply leak past the piston. There must be a resistance to flow in order to create pressure. Piston sealing, therefore, is extremely important
in hydraulic operation. The force exerted is downward (gravity) ; although, the principle remains the same no matter which direction is taken. The pressure created in the fluid is equal to the force applied ; divided by the piston area. If the force is 100 kg, and the piston area is 10m 2, then pressure created equals 10kg/m2 = 100kg/10m2. Another interpretation of Pascals Law is that : Pressure on a confined fluid is transmitted undiminished in all directions. Regardless of container shape or size, the pressure will be maintained throughout, as long as the fluid is confined. In other words, the pressure in the fluid is the same everywhere. The pressure at the top near the piston is exactly same as it is at the bottom of the container, thus, the pressure at the sides of the container is exactly the same as at top and bottom.
Force Multiplication Going back to the previous figure and using the 10kg/m2 created in the illustration, a force of 1,000kg can be moved with another force of only 100kg. The secret of force multiplication in hydraulic systems is the total fluid contact area employed. The figure shows an area that is ten times larger than the original area. The pressure created with the smaller 100kg input is 10kg/m2. The concept Pressure is the same everywhere, means that the pressure underneath the larger piston is also 10 kg/m 2. Reverting back to the formula used before : Pressure = Force/Area or P = F/A, and by means of simple algebra, the output force may be found. Example : 10kg/m2 = F(kg) / 100m2. This concept is extremely important as it is used in the actual design and operation of all shift valves and limiting valves in the valve body of the transaxle. It is nothing more than using a difference of area to create a difference in pressure in order to move an object.
Piston Travel Returning to the small and large piston area discussion. The relationship with a mechanical lever is the same, only with a lever its a weight-todistance output rather a pressure-to-area output. Referring to following figure, using the same forces and areas as in the previous example ; it is shown that the smaller piston has to move ten times the distance required to move the larger piston 1m. Therefore, for every meter the larger piston moves, the smaller one moves ten meters. This principle is true in other instances, also. A common garage floor jack is a good example. To raise a car weighing 1,000kg, an effort of only 25kg may be required. But for every meter the car moves upward, the jack handle moves many times that distance downward. A hydraulic ram is another good example where total input distance will be greater than the total output distance. The forces required in each case are reversed. That is, very little effort is required to produce a greater effort.
Hydraulic System Now that some of the basic principles of hydraulics have been covered and understood, it is time to explore hydraulic systems and see how they work. Every pressure type hydraulic system has certain basic components. This discussion will center on what these components are and what their function is in the system. Later on, the actual systems in the transaxle will be covered in detail. The figure reveals a basic hydraulic system that can be used in almost any situation requiring work to be performed. The basic components in this system are : Reservoir, Pump, Valving, Pressure lines, Actuating mechanism or mechanisms. The Fluid Reservoir Since almost all fluids are nearly incompressible, the hydraulic system needs fluid to function correctly. The reservoir or sump, as it is sometimes called, is a storehouse for the fluid until it is needed in the
system. In some systems, (also in the automatic transaxle), where there is a constant circulation of the fluid, the reservoir also aids in cooling of the fluid by heat transfer to the outside air by way of the housing or pan that contains the fluid. The reservoir is actually a fluid source for the hydraulic system. The reservoir has a vent line, pressure line, and a return line. In order for the oil pump to operate correctly, the fluid must be pushed up from the reservoir to the pump. The purpose of the vent line is to allow atmospheric pressure to enter the reservoir. As the pump rotates, an area of low pressure results from the pump down to the reservoir via the pressure line. The atmospheric pressure will then push the oil or fluid up to the pump due to a pressure difference existing in the system. The return line is important because with a system that is constantly operating, the fluid has to be returned to the reservoir for re-circulation through the system.
The Pump The pump creates flow and applies force to the fluid. Remember flow is needed to create pressure in the system. The pump only creates flow. If the flow doesnt meet any resistance, its referred to as free flow, and there is no pressure built up. There must be resistance to flow in order to create pressure. Pumps can be the reciprocating piston type (as in a brake master cylinder) or, they can be of the rotary type. The figure shows three major types of hydraulic oil pumps employing the rotary design. The internal-external type of pump design is used almost exclusively in todays automatic transaxle.
Valve Mechanism After the pump has started to pump the oil, the system needs some sort of valving, which will direct and regulates the fluid. Some valves interconnect passages, directing the fluid where to go and when. On the other hand, other valves control or regulate pressure and flow. The pump will pump oil to capacity all the time. It is up to the valves to regulate the flow and pressure in the system. One important principle to learn about valves in automatic transaxle hydraulics is that the valves can move in one direction or the other in a passage, opening or closing another passage. The valve may either move left or right, according to which force can overcome the other. When the spring force is greater than the hydraulic force, the valve is pushed to the left, closing the passage.
When the hydraulic force builds up enough force to overcome the spring force, the hydraulic force will push the valve to the right compressing the spring even more, and re-directing the fluid up into the passage. When there is a loss of pressure due to the re-direction of oil, the spring force will close the passage again. This system is called a balanced valve system. A valve that only opens and closes passages or circuits, is called a relay valve. An Actuating Mechanism Once the fluid has passed through the lines, valves, pump, etc., it will end up at the actuating mechanism. This is the point where the hydraulic force will push a piston causing the piston to do some sort of mechanical work. This mechanism is actually the dead end that the oil pump flow will finally encounter in the system. This dead end causes the pressure to build up in the system.
The pressure works against some surface area (piston) and causes a force to be applied. In hydraulics and transaxle technology, the actuating mechanism is also termed a servo. A servo is any device where an energy transformation takes place causing work as a result. The clutch assemblies found in the alpha automatic transaxle are actually servos, but they are termed clutch for ease of identification.
STEEING SYSTEM
(MANUAL & POWER)
STEERING SYSTEM
General There are two basic types of steering system on commercial vehicles : manual and power. In the manual system, the drivers effort to turn the steering wheel is the primary force that causes the front wheels to turn to the left or right on the steering knuckles. With power steering, the drivers turning efforts are multiplied by a hydraulic assist. The manual steering system incorporates a steering wheel, shaft, column, a manual gear box and pitman arm; drag link and knuckle arm, tie rod. The power steering system adds a hydraulic pump; fluid reservoir, hoses, lines; and either a power assist unit mounted on, or integral with, a power steering gear assembly. For driver protection, all steering columns and shafts are designed and constructed to collapse and/or deform in the event of a frontal collision.
STEERING SYSTEM
Manual Steering Gears and Linkage There are several different manual steering gears in current and recent use. The rack-and-pinion type is the current choice of most manufacturers for passenger vehicle. A typical manual rack-and-pinion steering gear assembly consists of a pinion shaft and bearing assembly, rack gear, gear housing, two tie rod assemblies, an adjuster assembly, dust boots and boot clamps, and mounting grommets and bolts. When the steering wheel is turned, this manual movement is relayed to the steering shaft and shaft joint, then to the pinion shaft. Since the pinion teeth mesh with the teeth on the rack gear, the rotary motion is changed to transverse movement of the rack gear. Then, the tie rods and tie rod ends transmit this movement to the steering knuckles and wheels.
STEERING SYSTEM
Manual Steering Gears and Linkage
Dust Boot Rack Bushing Steering Pinion Inner Tie Rod
Tie Rod Lock Nut
Steering Rack
[Rack & Pinion Type]
STEERING SYSTEM
Manual Steering Gears and Linkage The re-circulating ball type is a past favorite because the balls act as a rolling thread between the worm gear and the ball nut. It is used in most commercial vehicles steering system. With this steering gear, turning forces are transmitted through ball bearings from a worm gear on the steering shaft to a sector gear on the cross shaft. A ball nut assembly is filled with ball bearings which roll along tubes between the worm teeth and grooves inside the ball nut. When the steering wheel is turned, the worm gear on the end of the steering shaft rotates, and movement of the re-circulating balls causes the ball nut to move up-and-down along the worm. Movement of the ball nut is carried to the sector gear by teeth on the side of the ball nut. The sector gear, in turn, moves with the ball nut to rotate the cross shaft and activate the steering linkage. The balls re-circulate from one end of the ball nut to the other through ball return guides.
STEERING SYSTEM
Worm Shaft Return Tube Ball Bearing
Ball Nut
Sector gear
[Ball & Nut Type]
STEERING SYSTEM
Cross Shaft Ball Nut Main Shaft
Ball Tubes Balls Housing
[Ball & Nut Type]
STEERING SYSTEM
Manual Steering Gears and Linkage Another manual steering gear is the worm and sector type. The manual worm and sector steering gear assembly employs a steering shaft with a three-turn worm gear supported by, and straddled by, ball bearing assemblies. The worm meshes with a 14-tooth sector attached to the top end of the pitman arm shaft. In operation, a turn of the steering wheel causes the worm gear to rotate the sector-and the pitman arm and throughout the steering train to the wheel spindles.
STEERING SYSTEM
Power Steering System Over the year, power steering has become a standard equipment item on many larger domestic models. With that and the optional demand for this system, power steering is installed on over 90 percent of all domestic new car production. Most late-model cars with power steering use either a power rack-and-pinion system or an integral power steering gear assembly. Generally, the rack-and-pinion system is installed on front wheel drive cars. The integral power steering gear is used on many rearwheel drive cars. All systems require a power steering pump attached to the engine and driven by a belt, a pressure hose assembly, and a return line. Also, a control valve is incorporated somewhere in the hydraulic circuit. Automobile power steering is actually power-assisted steering. All systems are constructed so that the car can be steered manually when the engine is not running or if any failure occurs at the power source.
STEERING SYSTEM
Power Steering System A typical power rack-and-pinion steering assembly is used on many cars. This rack-and-pinion assembly is a hydraulic-mechanical unit with an integral piston and rack assembly. An internal rotary valve direct power steering fluid flow and controls pressure to reduce steering effort. When the steering wheel is turned, resistance created by the weight of the car and tires-to-road friction causes a torsion bar in the rotary valve to deflect. This changes the position of the valve spool and sleeve, thereby directing fluid under pressure to the proper end of the power cylinder. The difference in pressure on either side of the piston (attached to rack) helps move the rack to reduce turning effort. The fluid in the opposite end of the power cylinder is forced to the control valve and back to the pump reservoir. When the steering efforts stops, the control valve is centered by the twisting force of the torsion bar, pressure is equalized on both sides of the piston, and the front wheels return to the straight ahead position.
STEERING SYSTEM
Power Steering System (Rack & Pinion type)
Steering Wheel Steering Column
Power Steering Pump Power Steering Gear Box (Rack & Pinion)
STEERING SYSTEM
Power Steering System (Rack & Pinion type)
Right Turn Oil Flow
Left Turn Oil Flow
In Out Left Turn Right Turn
STEERING SYSTEM
Power Steering System (Integral power steering gear) A typical integral power steering gear utilizes a re-circulating ball system wherein steel balls act as rolling threads between the steering main(worm) shaft and the rack piston. The key to the operation of the integral power steering gear is a rotary valve that directs power steering fluid under pressure to either side of the rack piston. The rack piston then converts hydraulic power to mechanical force. The rack piston moves up inside the gear when the main(worm) shaft turns right. It moves down when the worm shaft turns left. During these actions, the steel balls re-circulate within the rack piston, which is power assisted in movement by hydraulic pressure. Force created by the movement of the rack piston is transmitted from the rack piston teeth to the sector teeth on the pitman shaft, through the shaft and pitman arm to the steering linkage.
STEERING SYSTEM
Power Steering System (Ball & Nut type)
Steering Wheel
Steering Column Ball & Nut Gear Pitman Arm Power Steering Pump
Drag Link
Tie Rod
STEERING SYSTEM
Integral power steering gear
Inlet Outlet
Stub Shaft Rack Piston Nut Cross Shaft Worm gear Torsion Bar
Valve Body
POWER STEERING SYSTEM

Power steering gear and linkage

System construction The power steering system consists of: - Rack and pinion steering gear box - Power steering oil pump - Oil reservoir - Tubes The power steering system uses a hydraulic pressure which is generated by the power steering pump to reduce the effort required to turn the steering wheel. The power steering pump is mounted on the front of the engine. The pump has a vane-type design, and is driven by the crankshaft through a drive belt. The power steering fluid is drawn into the pump from the reservoir when the engine is running. The fluid is pressurized by a power steering switch and a control valve located in the power steering pump.

System construction
POWER STEERING PUMP

Oil pump construction
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Pulley Shaft Pressure switch P/S pump body Flow control valve assy (built in relief valve) Cam ring Rotor Vane Cover
POWER STEERING PUMP

Oil pump construction
POWER STEERING PUMP

Operation of the oil pump Intake side Vane Rotating direction Discharge Cam ring Suction Suction Discharge
Rotor
POWER STEERING PUMP

Flow control valve As the discharge rate of the power steering pump increases in proportioning to the pump revolution speed, a flow control valve is added to control it so that the optimum amount of fluid for steering operation is supplied according to the engine speed (driving condition). Described below is its operation at different engine speeds.
POWER STEERING PUMP

Flow control valve (when idling)
1. To gear case 2. From pump 3. To pump 4. Rod 5. Orifice A1
The fluid discharged from the pump is supplied through the clearance around the rod in orifice A1 to the gear box.
POWER STEERING PUMP

Flow control valve (when running at Low Speed)
1. Flow control valve 2. Flow control spring
(Increase in engine speed) As the engine speed rises, the pump discharge rate increases and causes a pressure difference to occur between both ends of the orifice (P1 P2). Thus the pressure exceeding the flow control spring force pushes the flow valve to the right in figure, making the opening in the orifice narrower through which only a necessary amount of fluid is fed to the gear box and the excess fluid is returned to the pump.
POWER STEERING PUMP

Flow control valve (when running at High Speed)
As the engine speed rises higher, opening in the orifice is made narrower and fluid flow to the gear box reduces. As a result, hydraulic pressure application is slow at the start of the steering wheel turn. This provides straight-ahead stability to suit the driving condition with the steering wheel operated near its neutral position.
POWER STEERING PUMP

Relief Valve 1. Orifice A2 2. Relief valve spring 3. Steel ball 4. Chamber A 5. Chamber B The relief valve located in the flow control valve controls the maximum hydraulic pressure. The steel ball in the relief valve is under the hydraulic pressure in the circuit coming through orifice A2. When the steering wheel is turned and the hydraulic pressure increases higher than 75-82kg/cm 2 (1060-1160 psi), it compresses the relief spring to push the steel ball which then allows the fluid to flow to the power steering pump.
POWER STEERING PUMP

Relief Valve Such relief valve operation causes a pressure difference to occur between chamber A and B. Then the flow valve moves to the right to make opening in orifice A 1, maintaining the hydraulic pressure constant.

Steering gear box assembly

Steering gear box assembly
1. Tie rod end 2. Lock nut 3. Boot clip 4. Boot 5. Boot wire 6. Inner ball joint 7. Rack bushing 8. O-ring 9. Seal 10. Lock nut 11. Yoke plug 12. Spring 13. Support yoke 14. Snap ring 15. Seal 16. Bearing 17. Pinion shaft assembly 18. Bolt 19. Valve housing 20. O-ring 21. Steering gear housing 22. Mounting rubber 23. Mounting bracket 24. Oil pipe 25. Rack 26. Inner guide

Components of the power steering gear box

Construction of the power steering gear box

Operation of the pinion and valve assembly (at the center position)

Operation of the pinion and valve assembly (at the center position)

Operation of the pinion and valve assembly (turning left)

Operation of the pinion and valve assembly (turning left)

Operation of the pinion and valve assembly (turning right)

Operation of the pinion and valve assembly (turning right)

Steering Suspension

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Steering Suspension

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

SUSPENSION

MCPHERSON STRUT (FRONT)

- Roll center height variation is big - Variation characteristics of Camber is inferior

Camber rigidity is inferior Hard to reduce a hood height

MCPHERSON STRUT (FRONT)

DOUBLE WISHBONE (FRONT)

DOUBLE WISHBONE (FRONT)

ADVANTAGES Flexibility of suspension design (high performance) Better lateral stiffness

DISADVANTAGES Inferiority of cost, weight

MULTI LINK SYSTEM (FRONT)

MULTI LINK SYSTEM (FRONT)

MULTI LINK SYSTEM (FRONT)

MULTI LINK SYSTEM (FRONT)

MULTI LINK SYSTEM (FRONT)

STRUT TYPE (DUAL LINK, REAR)

TRAILING ARM (REAR)

SEMI TRAILING ARM (REAR)

SEMI TRAILING ARM (REAR)

AXLE-BEAM TYPE WITH PARHARD ROD (REAR)

AXLE-BEAM TYPE WITH PARHARD ROD (REAR)

COUPLED TORSION BEAM TYPE (REAR)

COUPLED TORSION BEAM TYPE (REAR)

MULTI LINK BEAM AXLE SYSTEM (REAR)

DOUBLE WISHBONE (REAR)

DOUBLE WISHBONE (IN WHEE TYPE, REAR)

MULTI LINK SYSTEM (REAR)

MULTI LINK SYSTEM (REAR)

5-LINK SYSTEM (REAR)

4-LINK SYSTEM (REAR)

MULTI LINK SYSTEM (REAR)

Rear lower track control arm

Longitudinal control arm

5-LINK SYSTEM (REAR)

4-LINK SYSTEM (REAR)

4-LINK SYSTEM (REAR)

4-LINK SYSTEM (REAR)

4-LINK SYSTEM (REAR)

Stabilizer link Stabilizer bar

Bumper stopper Oil seal Piston rod

Piston Base valve

Coil spring Stabilizer link Stabilizer bar

Lower arm ball joint (spring type)

B.J. (Birfield joint)

D.O.J. (Double offset joint)

B.J. Dynamic damper

T.J. (Tripod joint)

Spring counteractive force A B

Coil spring Lateral rod Shock absorber

Rear hub Trailing arm

Cornering force Side force

Lateral rod bushing

Rubber bushing Arm bushing

Difficult steering Shortened tyre life

Poor steering stability Poor recovery on curves

Reduction of vertical load

STEERING AXIS INCLINATION

STEERING AXIS INCLINATION

a: Kingpin offset b: Kingpin angle

STEERING AXIS INCLINATION

Rigid type and steering axis

STEERING AXIS INCLINATION

Double wishbone type

Upper ball joint