Topic 1 ~Maintenance of the body~

1.2

The cardiovascular system

SARINI BINTI AHMAD WAKID

Overview
Circulatory system consist of:

i) Cardiovascular system

Heart: four-chambered pump Blood vessels: arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins.

ii) Lymphatic system

Lymphatic vessels, lymphoid tissues, lymphatic organs (spleen,

thymus, tonsils, lymph nodes)

The heart
HEART ANATOMY HEART PHYSIOLOGY BLOOD FLOW AND BLOOD PRESSURE

The heart
The heart.
The pump that moves blood around

the body.
Located behind the sternum and ribs. Myocardium: interior wall of the heart,

consist of cardiac muscle.

Cardiac

muscles

are

myogenic;

contract and relax without receiving signals from neurones. The impulse to contract originates within the heart itself.

The heart
Pericardium:

thick heart.

doubled Secretes

membranous sac that support and

protect the pericardial fluid.

The heart
Septum separates the left and right

side of the heart.

The heart consist of right and left

atrium, and right and left ventricles.

The thickness of the wall of atrium,

right ventricle and left ventricle differs, depending on the task of each chamber.
Coronary arteries supply all the

food and nutrients needed by the heart.

The structure of the heart

The heart
Right atrium:
Receives deoxygenated blood from

the two vena cava. Left atrium:

Receives

oxygenated

blood

from

pulmonary veins.

Atrium has thin wall receives blood

at low pressure.
Needs to put relatively little pressure

to move the blood into ventricles.

The heart
Right ventricle:
Filled with deoxygenated blood from

right atrium.
Ventricles have thicker walls and contract

much more forcefully than atrium.

It produce the pressure needed to force

the blood out into the pulmonary arteries.

The heart
Left ventricle:
Filled with oxygenated blood from left

atrium.
Left ventricle has thicker wall than right

ventricle contract more forcefully to: 1) force the blood out into the aorta and around the body. 2) overcome the elastic recoil of the

arteries.
However, the volume of blood enters both

ventricles are the same.

The heart
The valves:
Made of flaps of connective tissue. Two types:

1) atrioventricular valve 2) semilunar valve.

1)

Atrioventricular valve (av valve): Other name: 1) tricuspid valve (separate right atrium and right ventricle). 2) bicuspid/mitral valve (separate left atrium and left ventricle). anchored by strong fibers (tendinous cords/chordae tendinae) attached to papillary muscles prevent them from turning inside out. when ventricle contract av valves closed prevent backflow of blood into the atria.

The heart

2) Semilunar valve:
In between ventricle and blood

The heart

vessel: 1) aortic semilunar valve - left ventricle and aorta. 2) pulmonary semilunar valve right artery.
Pushed

ventricle

and

pulmonary

open by the pressure generated during ventricles contraction. Closed when ventricles relax, pressure in the aorta close the valve.

The heart
The sounds of a heart beat:
Lub created by the recoil of blood

against the closed AV valve.

Dup created by the recoil of blood

against the closed semilunar valves.

Cardiac cycle

Cardiac cycle
When heart contracts it pumps blood. When heart relaxes blood fill in the chambers.

Cardiac cycle:
One complete sequence of pumping and filling the heart. In adult at rest, 1 cardiac cycle = 0.8 second.

Only 0.1 second of each cardiac cycle, atria is contract.

The other 0.7 second - atria are relaxed and are filling with blood returning

via the veins. Cardiac cycle:

Relaxation phase diastole. Contraction phase systole.

Cardiac cycle
1)

During diastole: relaxation phase - atria and ventricles in diastole.

0.4 sec.
- blood returning from the large veins flows into atria and ventricles.
2)

During atrial systole:

atrial contract, ventricle relax .

0.1 sec. - forces all blood remaining in the atria into the ventricles.
3)

During ventricular systole: ventricle contract, atrial relax. 0.3 sec. - pumps blood into the large arteries through the semilunar valve.

Cardiac cycle

Systole and diastole during cardiac cycle

Cardiac cycle

Changes in the heart during cardiac cycle

Cardiac output

Cardiac output
Cardiac output:
Volume of blood each ventricle pumps per minute. Cardiac output depends on:

1) Stroke volume (amount of blood pumped by a ventricle in a single contraction). ~ average stroke volume = 70mL. 2) Heart rate (no of heart beats per minute). ~ normal resting heart rate = 72 beats per minute. ~ controlled by intrinsic and extrinsic conduction of the heart.

Cardiac output
Intrinsic conduction of the heart. ~ Some cardiac muscle are autorhythmic contrax and relax without signal from the nervous system. ~ Nodal tissue, which has both muscular and nervous characteristics, is a unique type of cardiac muscle located in two regions of the heart.

Cardiac output
~ The SA (sinoatrial) node (pacemaker) is located in the

wall of the right atrium; the AV

node is located in the base of the right atrium very near the

septum.
~ Nodal tissue generates

electrical impulses which spread

rapidly within heart tissue, thus

sets the rate and timing at which all cardiac muscle contracts.

Cardiac output
Electrical

impulses begins at

the sinoatrial node (SAN).

It spread across the atria walls

cause

contraction

(atrial

systole) of both atria at the same time. Impulses pass to the ventricles via the atrioventricular node (AVN).

Cardiac output
The AVN pass the impulses onto the bundle of His, which conduct the impulses to the muscle fibres in the right and left ventricles walls. Impulses pass down the

Purkyne fibres - the right and left ventricles contract. Blood is squeezed into the arteries.

Cardiac output
After muscle contracting, cells the heart the

dissipate

electrical impulse and prepare to receive the next impulse. Cardiac muscle relax for a period blood fills the atria.

Cardiac output
Extrinsic conduction of the heart. 1) Sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves. ~ Helps to regulate the heart tempo - speed up or slow down. ~ e.g.: when we walk sympathetic nerves increase the heart rate to provide additional oxygen needed by the muscle. ~ e.g.: when we relax parasympathetic nerves decrease the heart rate conserve the energy used.

Cardiac output
2) Hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline. ~ Secreted into the blood can also influence the heart rate. ~ e.g. hormone is produced in situations of excited, anger, nervous or scared increase the heart rate.

3) Body temperature. ~ e.g.: when we have fever increase of 1oC raises the heart beat by about 10 beats per minute.

4) Substances and drugs. ~e.g.: nicotine and caffeine cause an increased in heart rate.

Cardiac output
Cardiac output = 72 x 70 = 5040 5 L/min. Equal to the total volume of blood in the human body.

"Blood." Encyclopedia Britannica. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, 1973.

"The body of an adult male contains about five litres of blood, that of a woman or a child less."

5L

Heavy exercise = cardiac output increase five fold.

Electrocardiogram

Electrocardiogram
Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG):

Detect and record electrical impulses generated by SA node. Consists of a P wave, a QRS complex, and a T wave. The ECG records the electrical activity that results when the heart

muscle cells in the atria and ventricles contract.

Electrocardiogram
Consists of: P wave: Caused by contraction of the atria - time of atrial systole. QRS complex: The main peak of the heartbeat, caused by contraction of the ventricles - time of ventricular systole. T wave: Caused by relaxation of the ventricles during diastole.

Blood pressure

Blood pressure

Contraction

of

heart

ventricles

generate blood pressure causes the

blood to flow away from the heart.

Pressure

in

artery

is

higher

as

compared to vein.

Blood pressure is highest in the aorta and lowest in the venae cavae.

Blood pressure

Stretches and recoil of elastic wall maintain the blood pressure and

blood flow through out the cardiac cycle.

Once they reach smaller blood vessel resistant increase dissipates much of the pressure generated by the heart.

When blood reach capillary, the lumen is even narrower, but the
number of capillary is enormous pressure will not increase.

Blood travels 500 times slower in the capillary (about 0.1 cm/sec) than

in the aorta (48 cm/sec).

Blood pressure
Systolic pressure:

Highest blood pressure during ventricular systole.

Diastolic pressure:

Pressure when elastic wall recoil during ventricular relax.

Blood pressure

Pulse is the rhythmic bulging of the artery walls with each heartbeat.

The surge of blood entering the arteries causes their elastic walls to stretch, but then they almost immediately recoil.

This alternating expansion and recoil of an arterial wall can be felt as a pulse in any artery that runs close to the bodys surface.

Blood pressure

Measuring the blood pressure:

Blood pressure
Regulation of blood pressure:
1) 2)

Oscillation in arterial blood pressure during each cardiac cycle. Change of state of smooth muscle in artery walls (trigger by nervous and hormones responses): a) vasoconstriction: smooth muscle contract arteries becomes narrower increasing the blood pressure flow in the arteries.

b) vasodilation:
smooth muscle relax arteries become wider decreasing the blood pressure flow in the arteries.

Blood pressure

Regulation of blood pressure always coupled with cardiac output.

e.g.: during exercise vasodilation of arteries increase flow of blood

to the muscle - decrease of blood pressure in body as a whole cardiac output increase maintaining blood pressure and blood flow.

Blood flow

Blood flow
Blood flow (F) is directly proportional to the difference in blood

pressure (P) between two points in the circulation

If P increases, blood flow speeds up If P decreases blood flow declines

Blood flow is inversely proportional to resistance (R) If R increases, blood flow decreases

R is more important than P in influencing local blood pressure

Blood resistance

Blood resistance
Opposition to blood flow.

A measure of the amount of friction blood encounters as it passes

through the vessels.

Referred to as peripheral resistance (PR).

Blood resistance
Three important source of resistance:

Blood viscosity internal resistance to flow that exists in all fluid;

related to thickness of a fluid. The greater the viscosity, the less easily molecules slide past one another, the more difficult it is to

keep the fluid moving.

Total blood vessel length the longer the vessel, the greater the resistance.

Blood vessel diameter the smaller the tube, the greater the
friction. Fatty plaques from atherosclerosis cause turbulent blood flow and increase resistance due to turbulence.

The blood vessels

Blood vessels

Structure of artery, capillary and vein.

Blood vessels
Structure of blood vessels:

1) Tunica intima:

~Innermost layer of vessels.

~One layer of endothelial cells /

endothelium.

2) Tunica media:
~Middle layer of vessels. ~Smooth muscle + elastic tissue. 3) Tunica adventitia: ~Outermost layer of blood vessel. ~Mainly composed of connective tissue.
Structure of artery, capillary and vein.

Blood vessels
Arteries and veins:
highway carrying heavy traffic.

Capillary:
narrow town street. Place for exchange of substance.

All blood vessels are interconnected between one another. Working within one circulatory system.

Arrangement of blood vessels:

aort a arter y arteriol e capillar y venul e vein Vena cava

Arteries
Arteries:
Carry high-pressure surge of blood away from the heart towards the

cells.
Carry oxygenated blood except:

~ Pulmonary artery.

~ Umbilical artery.

Histology of artery and vein.

Arteries
Their walls contain a lot of elastic fibres can stretch to accommodate

the greater volume of blood without being damaged.

Aorta have more elastic fibres to increased elasticity - helps to

accommodate blood pumped at high pressure by the heart + maintain blood pressure when the heart relaxes between contractions.
Between surge elastic fibres return to their original length squeeze

the blood blood move in a continuous flow.

Blood pressure in artery fall as arteries are further away from the heart. The smaller the lumen, the harder blood can flow through it - arterioles

have more muscle tissue that will contract or relax to control the blood flow regulate the amount of blood arrive at each organ.

Capillaries
Capillaries:
Fine networks of tiny tubes that links the arterioles and venules. The smallest blood vessels (diameter only slightly greater than RBC). Therefore, slow speed of blood flow more opportunity for diffusion to

occur.
Vessels that spread throughout the tissues of the body - substance can

diffuse between cells and the blood quickly.

Only certain capillaries are open at any given time. Precapillary sphincters control the blood flow through a capillary bed

constriction will closes the capillary bed blood flow through arteriovenous shunt.

Capillaries
Walls consist of one very thin cell:

Consist of only endothelium. No elastic fibres + smooth muscle + connective tissues. Facilitates the exchange of substances between the blood in capillaries and cells, e.g: 1) Oxygen + food molecules diffuse out from capillary into cells. 2) Carbon dioxide + waste diffuse from cells into capillary.
Blood flowing to capillary is under very much low pressure. Blood entering capillary network oxygenated. Blood leaving capillary network deoxygenated.

Veins
Veins:
Carry blood back to the heart. Carry deoxygenated blood except:

~ Pulmonary vein. ~ Umbilical vein.

Histology of artery and vein.

Veins
Two veins carry the returning blood to the heart:

~ Inferior vena cava lower parts of body ~ Superior vena cava upper parts of the body
Veins bring blood back to the heart under low pressure and velocity. Their walls are thin (less elastic walls, smooth muscles and connective

tissues), thus vessels are thinner and less strong then arteries blood visible in them under the living skin.
Vein can hold a large volume of blood (blood reservoir). More than half

of the bodys blood is in the veins at any 1 time.

Veins
With relatively low pressure in veins, blood is returned to the heart

through 1) Semilunar valves. Formed from infoldings of the inner wall of the vein. Prevent backflow of blood and maintain unidirectional flow of blood in the vessels. Valve opened by pressure from behind, closed with pressure from in front.

Semilunar valve of vein

Veins
2) Contraction of muscle. Many of larger veins are situated between the large blocks of the body (arms and legs). Contraction of muscles will squeeze the veins.

Large muscle between vein

Arteries vs capillaries vs veins

Blood pressure, velocity and total area of arteries, capillaries and veins.

Common blood vessels

The cardiovascular pathway

The cardiovascular pathway

Double-closed circulation system in human.

The cardiovascular pathway

Human have two circulations: 1) Pulmonary circulation.
Deoxygenated blood flows from the right side

of the heart to the lungs (diffusion of O2 into the blood and CO2 out of the blood) and then back (oxygenated blood) the heart.
Blood pumps to lungs via pulmonary arteries. Blood returns to heart via pulmonary veins. The pathway?

to the left side of

The cardiovascular pathway

2) Systemic circulation.
Oxygenated blood from the left side of the

heart is then pumped around the rest of the body and back (deoxygenated blood) to the right side of the heart.
Blood pumps to body tissues via aorta. Blood

returns to heart via superior and

inferior venae cavae.

The pathway?

The cardiovascular pathway

Benefit of double circulation: 1) Oxygenated blood is delivered at high pressure to reach the respiring tissues. 2) Oxygenated blood is unmixed by deoxgynated blood.

The cardiovascular pathway

* Coronary circulation *
Myocardium receives oxygen and nutrients

from the coronary arteries, remove wastes through cardiac veins.

Coronary arteries the first branches off

the aorta. Lie on the exterior surface of the heart, divide into arterioles. Coronary capillary beds join to form venules, join to form cardiac veins, then empty into the right atrium.