Section 3.

1 Introduction to Metals

Rev. 4 8/27/01

Overview
Solidification Changing Metals in the Solid State Recovery and Recrystallization Heat Treatment of Steel Heat Treatment of Nonferrous Metals Corrosion & Corrosion Protection

Part 1 - Solidification

Energy States of the Atom

High Energy
Gaseous state; Repelling forces predominate; Atoms tend to move apart.

Energy States of the Atom

Moderate Energy
Liquid state; Atoms assume fixed distances (equilibrium is reached); Materials have fixed volume.

Energy States of the Atom

Low Energy
Solid State; Mobility of atoms decrease; Metals occur as crystalline solids.

Nucleation
Since the metal at the mold wall is coolest, nucleation starts first at the mold walls. Each nuclei becomes a point of nucleation for the growth of a crystal. Due to interference with neighboring crystals, these crystals take on a columnar or dendritic shape, growing inwards towards the center of the melt.

Crystal Lattices

Common crystalline structures:

Body-centered cubic, Face-centered cubic, and Hexagonal close-packed.

The existence of more than one crystal structure in a metal is termed allotropy.

Grain Boundaries
When dendrite growth is restricted by an adjacent dendrite, the result will be the formation of a grain boundary. Atoms are perfectly lined up within each dendrite or grain, but the direction of alignment varies between dendrite.

Grain Size
Grain size is an important factor in determining mechanical properties such as hardness, strength, and ductility. Dependent upon:

Rate of nucleation, and Rate of growth.

Part 2 - Changing Metals in the Solid State

Elastic Deformation
Load does not stress the material past its elastic limit. Material returns to its original position upon removal of the load.

Plastic Flow
Load exceeds the elastic limit. Material des not completely return to its original position when the load is removed. Permanently deformed by plastic flow within its crystalline structure.

Plastic Deformation

Permanent deformation occurs in three ways:

Slip, Twinning, and/or Rotational Deformation.

Slip
Sliding between the atomic planes within a grain. Planes of greatest atomic population and greatest distance are most subject to slip.

Twinning
Loads applied suddenly. Grain deforms by twisting or reorienting a band of adjacent lattice forms.

Rotational Deformation
Rotational deformation of portions of crystal lattice. Fibering occurs after a large percentage of grains has been reoriented.

Part 3 - Recovery and Recrystallization

Recovery (stress relief)

Rearrangement of some of the more strenuous dislocations or imperfections. Although the changes that take place have little or no effect on the external forms of the crystal or grains, they have a marked effect on some properties. Electrical properties and corrosion resistance are improved and residual stresses are reduced.

Recovery
Temperature chosen will be dependent upon the metal, and to some extent on the amount of cold work that has been performed previously. Objective is to regain electrical and chemical properties without sacrifice of mechanical properties.

Recrystallization
Recovery of ductility from a material that has been cold worked can be obtained only by elimination of deformed grains. Takes place by nucleation of new grains mainly about the high energy points of dislocation in a work hardened grain. These growths continue until they fill the old grain space and eliminate the existing strain of the atoms into a new crystal lattice.

Recrystallization

Occurs over a wide temperature range with the length of time required for complete recrystallization inversely related to the temperature and to the degree of strain present.

Grain Growth

If a metal is kept heated at or below its recrystallization temperature after the new, unstrained grains have formed, the tendency is for some of the new grains to absorb others and grow to a larger size.

Grain Growth

During processing, large grains are desired for:

greater ductility, better machinability, and less pressure for deformation.

Final product should be of relatively fine structure.

Part 4- Heat Treatment of Steel

Heat Treatment of Steel

Definition:
Intentional heating and cooling for control of properties. Unintentional heat transfer from a process such as welding or from service such as a gas turbine is also of importance.

Heat- Treatment Processes

Places the material in either a complete or approximate equilibrium energy condition. Processes include:

Austenitizing, Annealing, Normalizing, and Spheroidizing.

Austenitization

Steel is heated to or above its critical temperature, and held for a period of time. Carbon unites in solid solution with iron in the gamma or face-centered cubic lattice form. With the formation of this new lattice, grain refinement occurs, leaving new small grains, if the temperature is not raised too high or maintained too long.

Annealing
Purpose of full annealing is to decrease hardness, increase ductility, and sometimes improve machinability. Also used to relieve stresses, refine grain size, and promote uniformity of structure.

Normalizing
Similar to annealing, although steel is not reduced to its softest condition. Used to refine grain size, relieve internal stresses, and improve structural uniformity and ductility.

Spheroidizing
Usually performed on normal steel. Iron carbide forms in small spheres or nodules in a ferrite matrix. Improves machinability of high carbon steels and/or to pre-treat hardened steel to help produce greater structural uniformity.

Part 5- Heat Treatment of Nonferrous Metals

Heat Treatment- Nonferrous Metals

Age/Precipitation Hardening
A process of increasing hardness and/or strength by the precipitation of particles from a supersaturated solid solution alloy.

Heat Treatment- Nonferrous Metals

The hardening cycle usually consists of:

Solution Heat Treating: heating or annealing at a temperature sufficiently high to maintain solid solution. Quenching: rapid cooling to retain the super saturated solution, and Aging: subsequent heating at or slightly above room temperature to refine precipitant particle size and spacing.

Part 6 Corrosion & Corrosion Protection

Corrosion
Deterioration of metals by the chemical action of some surrounding medium (may be liquid or gas). May occur through:

direct chemical action, electrolytic reaction, or a combination of the two.

Direct Chemical Action

Used to describe those reactions where coupled anodes and cathodes in an electrolyte are not identifiable. Best illustrated by:

Chemical milling, and Steel pickling.

Electrochemical Reaction

Involves the flow of an electric current between two electrodes:

Anode (positive) and Cathode (negative).

Corrosion Rate

Determined by the:
position in the electrochemical series of the metal(s); presence of residual stresses in the metal(s); electrolyte present; and atmosphere.

Corrosion Types
General Pitting Intercrystalline

Corrosion Protection

Can be improved by:

selection of most suitable metals; controlling the presence of corroding media; coating the metal (metals, chemicals, organic materials, or plastics); or stress relieving.