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CHAPTER 7:
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
CHAPTER 7:
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
Stress and strain
Elastic behavior
Plastic behavior
Toughness and ductility
Ceramic Materials
Stress
Strain
Elasticity
Strength
Tensile
Elongation
Ductile
Fracture
Tension
Flexural
Plasticity
4
Tensile stress, o: Shear stress, t:
o =
F
t
A
o
original area
before loading
Stress has units:
N/m
2
or lb/in
2
7.2 STRESS & STRAIN
Tensile load
Compressive load
Shear strain
= tan u
Torsional deformation
angle of twist, |
o
o =
F
A
Stress (o) for tension and
compression
Strain (c) for tension and
compression
Shear stress
o
t =
F
s
A
5
Simple tension: cable
o
o =
F
A
Simple shear: drive shaft
o
t =
F
s
A
Note: t = M/A
c

Ski lift (photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
7.2 COMMON STATES OF STRESS
Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM
6
Simple compression:
A
o
Balanced Rock, Arches
National Park
Note: compressive
structure member
(o < 0 here).
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES
7
Bi-axial tension: Hydrostatic compression:
Fish under water
Pressurized tank
o
z
> 0
o
u
> 0
o < 0
h
(photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)
(photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES
8
Tensile strain: Lateral strain:
Shear strain:
u/2
t/2
t/2 - u
u/2
o/2
o/2
o
L
/2 o
L
/2
L
o
w
o

= tan u
Strain is always
dimensionless.
ENGINEERING STRAIN
Typical tensile specimen
9
Other types of tests:
--compression: brittle
materials (e.g., concrete)
--torsion: cylindrical tubes,
shafts.
Typical tensile
test machine
Adapted from Fig. 6.2,
Callister 6e.
Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister 6e.
(Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W. Hayden,
W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The
Structure and Properties of Materials,
Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John
Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965.)
7.2 STRESS-STRAIN TESTING
Normal and shear stresses on an arbitrary plane

Stress is a function of the orientation

On plane p-p the stress is not pure tensile

There are two components
Tensile or normal stress o (normal to the pp plane)
Shear stress t (parallel to the pp plane)

Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)
10
Hooke's Law:
o = E c
Poisson's ratio, v:


metals: v ~ 0.33
ceramics: ~0.25
polymers: ~0.40
Units:
E: [GPa] or [psi]
v: dimensionless
ELASTIC DEFORMATIONS
7.3 Stress-strain behavior
11
Elastic modulus, E
Energy ~ curvature at ro
AL F
A
o

= E
L
o

Elastic modulus
r
larger Elastic Modulus
smaller Elastic Modulus
Energy
r
o

unstretched length
E is larger if Eo is larger.
PROPERTIES FROM BONDING: E
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7.4 ANESLATICITY

Assumed:
Time-independent elastic deformation
Applied stress produces instantaneous elastic strain
Remains constant while elasticity stress is applied
At release of load, strain is recovered

In real life:
Time-dependent elastic strain component: Anelasticity
Time-dependent microscopic and atomistic processes
For metals is small
Significant for polymeric materials: Viscoelastic behavior
7.5 ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Poissons ratio
v = -c
x
/c
z
= -c
y
/c
z

G=
E
2(1+ v)
For isotropic materials
13
0.2
8
0.6
1
Magnesium,
Aluminum
Platinum
Silver, Gold
Tantalum
Zinc, Ti
Steel, Ni
Molybdenum
Graphite
Si crystal
Glass -soda
Conc rete
Si nitride
Al oxide
PC
Wood( grain)
AFRE( fibers) *
CFRE *
GFRE*
Glass fibers only
Carbon fibers only
Aramid fibers only
Epoxy only
0.4
0.8
2
4
6
10
20
40
60
80
10 0
200
600
800
10 00
1200
400
Tin
Cu alloys
Tungsten
<100>
<111>
Si carbide
Diamond
PTFE
HDP E
LDPE
PP
Polyester
PS
PET
CFRE( fibers) *
GFRE( fibers)*
GFRE(|| fibers)*
AFRE(|| fibers)*
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Metals
Alloys
Graphite
Ceramics
Semicond
Polymers
Composites
/fibers
E(GPa)
10
9
Pa
Based on data in Table B2,
Callister 6e.
Composite data based on
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
carbon (CFRE),
aramid (AFRE), or
glass (GFRE)
fibers.
YOUNGS MODULI: COMPARISON
II. MECHANICAL BEHAVIORMETALS
F
o
bonds
stretch
return to
initial
2
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
Elastic means reversible!
II. ELASTIC DEFORMATION
15
Simple tension test:
(at lower temperatures, T < T
melt
/3)
II. PLASTIC (PERMANENT) DEFORMATION
3
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
Plastic means permanent!
F
o
linear
elastic
linear
elastic
o
plastic
II. PLASTIC DEFORMATION (METALS)
16
YIELD STRENGTH, o
y
Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when c
p
= 0.002
tensile stress, o
engineering strain, c
o
y
c
p
= 0.002
7.6 Tensile properties

17
Room T values
o
y(ceramics)

>>o
y(metals)

>> o
y(polymers)
Based on data in Table B4,
Callister 6e.
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered
7.6 YIELD STRENGTH: COMPARISON
18
Maximum possible engineering stress in tension
Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts.
Polymers: occurs when polymer backbones are
aligned and about to break.
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
Callister 6e.
7.6 TENSILE STRENGTH, TS
19
Room T values
TS
(ceram)

~TS
(met)

~ TS
(comp)
>> TS
(poly)
Based on data in Table B4,
Callister 6e.
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
7.6 TENSILE STRENGTH:
COMPARISON
Plastic tensile strain at failure:
20
ductility as percent reduction in
area

%AR =
A
o
A
f
A
o
x100
Note: %AR and %EL are often comparable.
--Reason: crystal slip does not change material volume.
--%AR > %EL possible if internal voids form in neck.

%EL =
L
f
L
o
L
o
x100
Adapted from Fig. 6.13,
Callister 6e.
7.6 DUCTILITY, %EL
Degree of plastic deformation at fracture
Brittle, when very little plastic deformation
c
0
7
t
f
0
2

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Stress-strain of iron at several temperatures
RESILIENCE

Capacity to absorb energy when deformed elastically and then upon
unloadign, to have this energy recovered

Modulus of Resilience




For a linear elastic region:

}
=
y
d U
r
c
c o
0
y y r
U c o
2
1
=
Ability to absorb energy up to fracture
21
smaller toughness-
unreinforced
polymers
Engineering tensile strain, c
Engineering
tensile
stress, o
smaller toughness (ceramics)
larg er toughness
(metals, PMCs)
7.6 TOUGHNESS
Usually ductile materials are tougher than brittle ones
Areas below the curves
7.7 True stress & strain
Decline in stress necessary to continue deformation past M
Looks like metal become weaker
Actually, it is increasing in strength
Cross sectional area decreases rapidly within the neck region
Reduction in the load-bearing capacity of the specimen
Stress should consider deformation
HARDENING: An increase in o
y
due to plastic deformation.
22
Curve fit to the stress-strain response:
7.7 True stress & strain
n
T T
Kc o =
n = hardening exponent
n = 0.15 (some steels)
n = 0.5 (some copper)
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7.8 Elastic Recovery After Plastic Deformation
7.9 Compressive, Shear, and
Torsional Deformation

Similar to tensile counterpart

No maximum for compression

Necking does not occur

Mode of fracture different from that of
tension

III. MECHANICAL BEHAVIORCERAMICS
Limited applicability, catastrophic fracture in a brittle manner, little
energy absorption

7.10 FLEXURAL STRENGTH
Tensile tests are difficult
difficult to prepare geometry
easy to fracture
ceramics fail at 0.1% strain
bending stress
rod specimen is used
three of four point loading technique
flexure test

7.10 MEASURING STRENGTH
Flexural strength= modulus of rupture
= fracture strength = bend strength
Type values:
Material o
fs
(MPa) E(GPa)
Si nitride
Si carbide
Al oxide
glass (soda)
700-1000
550-860
275-550
69
300
430
390
69
Data from Table 12.5, Callister 6e.
2
2
3
bd
L F
f
fs
= o
3
R
L F
f
fs
t
o =
7.11 Elastic Behavior (for
ceramics)

Similar to tensile test for metals

Linear stress-strain

Moduli of elasticity for
ceramics are slightly higher
than for metals

No plastic deformation prior
to fracture
7.12 INFLUENCE OF POROSITY ON THE
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CERAMICS
Powder as precursor
Compaction to desire shape
Pores or voids elimination
incomplete
Residual porosity remains
Deleterious influence on
elasticity and strength
Volume fraction porosity P
Eo = modulus of elasticity of
the non porous material
-Pores reduce the area
-Pores are stress concentrators
-tensile stress doubles in an
isolated spherical pore
Aluminum oxide
E = Eo(1 1.9P + 0.9P
2
)
Aluminum oxide
o
fs
= o
o
e
-nP
Compare to responses of other polymers:
--brittle response (aligned, cross linked & networked case)
--plastic response (semi-crystalline case)
Stress-strain curves
adapted from Fig. 15.1,
Callister 6e. Inset
figures along elastomer
curve (green) adapted
from Fig. 15.14, Callister
6e. (Fig. 15.14 is from
Z.D. Jastrzebski, The
Nature and Properties of
Engineering Materials,
3rd ed., John Wiley and
Sons, 1987.)
IV MECHANICAL BEHAVIORPOLYMERS

7.13 STRESSSTRAIN BEHAVIOR
26
Decreasing T...
--increases E
--increases TS
--decreases %EL

7.13 T & STRAIN RATE: THERMOPLASTICS
Increasing
strain rate...
--same effects
as decreasing T.
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7.14 Macroscopic Deformation
Semicrystaline polymer
7.15 Viscoelasticity Deformation
Amorphous polymer:
Glass at low T
Viscous liquid at higher T
Small deformation at low T may be elastic
Hookes law
Rubbery solid at intermediate T
A combination of glass and viscous/liquid
Viscoelasticity
Elastic deformation is instantaneous
Upon release, deformation is totally recovered

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7.15 Viscoelasticity Deformation
Totally elastic
Viscoelastic
Viscous
Load
Relaxation Modulus for viscoelastic
polymers:
o
r
t
t E
c
o ) (
) ( =
Amorphous polystyrene
A viscoelastic polymer
Polystyrene configurations
amorphous
Lightly crosslinked atactic
Almost totally crystalline isotactic
Viscoelastic creep
Creep modulus E
c
(t)

) (
) (
t
t E
o
c
c
o
=
V. Hardness & Other Mechanical Property Considerations

7.16 Hardness

Measure of material resistance to localized plastic deformation
Early tests: Mohs scale 1 for talc and 10 for diamond

Depth or size of an indentation

Tests:
Mohs Hardness
Rockwell Hardness
Brinell Hardness
Knoop & Vickers Microindentation Hardness


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Hardness Conversion
Correlation between Hardness and Tensile Strength
Tensile strength and Hardness
measure metal resistance to plastic
deformation

For example:

TS(Mpa) = 3.45 HB

or

TS(psi) = 500 HB
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7.17 Hardness of Ceramic Materials
7.18 Tear Strength & Hardness of Polymers
Thin films in packaging
Tear Strength: Energy required to tear apart a cut specimen of a
standard geometry
VI. Property Variability and Design/Safety Factors
7.19 Variability of Material Properties: Average and
standard deviation
Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
Factor of safety, N
29

o
working
=
o
y
N
Often N is
between
1.2 and 4
Ex: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does
not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a
factor of safety of 5.

o
working
=
o
y
N

220, 000N
t d
2
/ 4
|
\

|
.
|
5
7.20 DESIGN/SAFETY FACTORS
d = 47.5 mm
Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches oy.
30
Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.
SUMMARY