Quality Control and Improvement

Chapter 9

McGraw-Hill/Irwin

The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 2007, All Rights Reserved

Chapter 9 Outline
Design of Quality Control Systems Process Quality Control Attribute Control Variables Control Using Control Charts Continuous Improvement Six Sigma Quality Control in Industry
9-2

Design of Quality Control Systems

Break down production process into subprocesses and internal customers. Identify Critical points where inspection or measurement should take place Four steps in designing QC systems.

9-3

Steps in Designing QC Systems

Identify critical points Incoming materials & services Work in process Finished product or service Decide on the type of measurement
variable attribute

Decide on the amount of inspection to be used. Decide who should do the inspection

9-4

Types Of Measurement
Attribute measurement
Product characteristic evaluated with a discrete choice:
Good/bad, yes/no

Variable measurement
Product characteristic that can be measured on a continuous scale:
Length, size, weight, height, time, velocity

When the Inspector Finds a Defect

1. Containment: Keep the defective items from

getting to the customer 2. Correction: Find the cause of the defect and correct it. 3. Prevention: Prevent the cause from happening again. 4. Continuously improve the system.
9-6

When the Inspector Finds a Defect

e.g. Strap on backpack comes loose
Containment: pull the bad backpacks from the

line. Correction: sewing machine misaligned; fix it. Prevention: why was it misaligned? Find out and change system to prevent it happening again. Continuously monitor and improve system.
9-7

Process Quality Control

Basic assumptions (tenets) of Process Quality Control:
Every process has random variation in it. Production processes are not usually found in a state of control.

State of Control; what does it mean?

Unnecessary variation is eliminated. Remaining variation is because of random causes.

9-8

Process Quality Control

Assignable (special) causes
Can be identified and corrected

Common causes
Occur randomly Cannot be changed unless process is redesigned

9-9

Process Control Chart (Figure 9.1)

y

Average + 3 standard deviations Quality measurement average Average - 3 standard deviations

Upper control limit (UCL)

Center line (CL)

Lower control limit (LCL)

Time

x
9-10

Quality Control Chart (Figure 9.2)

Stop the process; look for assignable cause

UCL

CL

LCL
Stop the process; look for assignable cause

Sample
9-11

Attributes & Variables

Attributes are counts, such as the number (or proportion) of defects in a sample. Variables are measures (mean & range or standard deviation) of critical characteristics in a sample.
9-12

Formulas for SPC (3 Sigma)

p-Chart
p (1 p) p 3 n

x-Bar Chart

x A2 R
LCL D 3 R

R-Chart

UCL D4 R

9-13

Issues in Using Control Charts

Sample Size
large enough to detect defectives defect rate has time dimension

How often to sample?

Depends upon cost

Control limits vs. product specifications

Is the process capable of producing to specs? Are the specifications appropriate?
9-14

Continuous Improvement
Aim of continuous improvement is to reduce the variability of the product or process Techniques for continuous improvement
Pareto analysis Cause-and-effect (fish-bone) diagrams Process capability charts

9-15

Pareto Analysis
Table 9.2 # of Defectives 193 131 47 25 16 412 Precent Cumulative Defective Percentage 46.8% 46.8% 31.8% 78.6% 11.4% 90.0% 6.1% 96.1% 3.9% 100.0% 100.0%

Defect Items Loose connections Cracked connectors Fitting burrs Improper torque O-rings missing Total

Note: 40 percent of the items cause 78.6 percent of the defects

9-16

Pareto Diagram (Figure 9.3)

250
120.0% 100.0% 80.0%

200
# of Defectives

150
60.0%

100
40.0%

50

20.0% 0.0%

0 Loose connections Cracked connectors Fitting burrs Improper torque O-rings missing

9-17

Percentage

Cause-and-effect

(Fish-bone, Ishikawa) (Figure 9.4)

diagram

Workers
Content

Material connectors
Small Size Large

Nuts
Size

Training
Knowledge Fatigue

Hose

Surface defect
Measurement Measuring tools Errors

Loose connections
Wear
Torque

Experience

Judgment

Inspector
Training

Adjustment
Air pressure

Inspection

Tools

9-18

Process Capability Index Examples (Figure 9.5)

frequency

process measure

process measure

9-19

Computation of Cpk (Figure 9.6)

frequency process measure

process measure

9-20

Six-Sigma Quality
Pioneered by Motorola in 1988 (Juran claims credit for the idea). 3.4 defects per million Sample size rules become unusable Most process are 4 sigma, e.g. payroll, prescriptions, baggage handling, journal vouchers, restaurant bills. Airline fatalities are 6.4 sigma IRS tax advice is less than 2 sigma Criticism: accepts 3.4 defects/million. Is not zero defects.

9-21

Six Sigma Quality

Process Improvement steps of Six Sigma (DMAIC):
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Define Measure Analyze Improve Control

9-22

Quality Control in Industry

75% use process control charts. More use of variable (x-bar and R) charts than attribute (p) charts. The Seven Tools of Quality Control (see Figure 9.7) Quality control in the service industry (SERVQUAL)

9-23

Summary
Design of Quality Control Systems Process Quality Control Attribute Control Variables Control Using Control Charts Continuous Improvement Six Sigma Quality Control in Industry
9-24

End of Chapter Nine

9-25