Data Communications & Networking w/Lab

Week 2
See TCO 2 & 8: Data Communications
Title Lesson ID Target Course Author Date Originated Current Version Date of Current Version Last Updated By Intro To Computers TCO1 ECET375 Sina Kasraian 07/02/2013 001 07/18/2013 Sina Kasraian

Learning Objectives
TCO 1:
Given the block diagrams, truth tables, and constellation diagrams, discuss the characteristics of binary as well as m-ary digital modulation systems, their advantages and disadvantages, such as bandwidth requirements, and their susceptibility to noise.

Key Concepts:
Explain principles of error detection and correction. Explain the difference between bit rate and baud. Determine the relationship between the probability of error and bit error rate. Analyze the reduced bandwidth requirements of higher-state digital modulation systems. Evaluate different line codes in terms of their effects on bit error rates.

Learning Objectives
TCO 8:
Given prescribed technical documentation guidelines, develop written reports and oral presentations.

Key Concepts:
Demonstrate proficiency to assess and interpret technical data in a written manner, such as a lab report. Demonstrate proficiency to communicate technical data gathered from a lab experiment using verbal skills, such as an oral presentation.

Signals, Noise, Modulation & Demodulation

Signals can be analog or digital An analog signal continuously changes amplitude with time (a Sin Wave) Digital signals are described as discrete, their amplitude maintains a constant level for a prescribed period of time and then changes to another level. (b Binary Digital Signal) A four level digital signal has 4 values of two bits each. (c Quaternary Digital Signal) In example V4 can have the value of 11, V3 value 10, V2 a value of 01, and V1 a value of 00 If I would like to send 3 Bits in a package I would need 2^3 = 8 different levels

Signals, Noise, Modulation & Demodulation

Modulation is converting information signals to a different form An example is converting digital to analog at a source modem Demodulation is then converting analog to digital at the destination modem Digital modulation is the transmission of digitally modulated analog signals (An example is an analog voice signal sampled and digitized and subsequently transmitted) (Nyquist Theorem applies)

Information Capacity
Bit rate is the number of bits transmitted in one second Information capacity is proportional to Bandwidth (hertz) X transmission time Information capacity decreases as the signal to noise ratio decreases I = log 2 (1 + ) = 3.32 log 10 (1 + )

B is Bandwidth S/N is Signal to noise ratio

Information Capacity
M-ary is a term derived from the word binary M represents a digit that corresponds to the number of conditions, levels, or combinations possible for a given number of binary variables A digital signal with four possible conditions is an M-art system where M = 4 For 8 possible conditions M = 8 and so forth The number of bit required to produce a given number of condition is expressed as: N = log 2

Information Capacity
Encoding at a higher level than binary with M-ary M represents a digit that corresponds to the number of conditions, levels, or combinations possible for a given number of binary variables The number of bit required to produce a given number of condition is expressed as: N = log 2 OR M = 2^N Where N = number of bits required and M = number of conditions With four conditions we have 2 bits per condition.

Information Capacity
M-ary is a term derived from the word binary M represents number of conditions, levels A baud is several bits together and it is called symbol. Lets call it a package of bits Example: baud of 8 bits can be 01010101, 11110000, etc. A baud can represent a symbol such as A, B,etc. Baud rate = baud per second and is the same as symbol per second transmitted! A baud rate of 5 means 5 symbols per second If each symbol has 8 bits, the number of conditions is :

N = log 2

==>

= 2 = 28 = 256 conditions are required

Digital-radio system

Block diagram of a digital-radio signal

10

Amplitude Shift Keying

Amplitude shift keying (ASK), a binary information signal directly modulates the amplitude of an analog carrier. Analog carrier has been a sine wave

= where is channel capacity( bit per second) = log 2 Since conditions, = 2 in ASK thus = log 2 = log 2 2 =1

There are 1 bit in each symbol in ASK , is =1 thus = 1 = Thus bit rate value and baud value are the same and equal to !!!
11

Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK)

Frequency Shift keying called binary frequency shift keying. For logic 1, The output frequency will be a frequency called mark, For logic 0, The output frequency will be a frequency called mark, Frequency deviation is

| | = 2

12

BFSK bandwidth and baud

Baud for FSK is
=
= 1 ( bit rate value and baud value are the same!)

Minimum bandwidth for FSK:

= 2 ( + )

Digital Circuits & Systems w/Lab

13

Phase Shift Keying

Simplest PSK is bipolar PSK where one phase of carrier represent one and another one represents 0 Carrier, Sine signal, phase =0 for logic 1 Carrier, Sine signal, phase =180 for logic 0

Truth table, Phasor diagram, and constellation diagram

Digital Circuits & Systems w/Lab

14

Higher level of Phase Shift Keying

Instead of two phases, 0 and 180, different phases can be used. Quadrature PSK, QPSK, uses 4 different phases (conditions) Since =4, then
= log 2 = log 2 4 =2, 2 bits in each package

Carrier signal phase changes 4 phases ( conditions) each condition represents 2 bits

Digital Circuits & Systems w/Lab

15

QPSK truth table and constellation diagram

A carrier signal with a phase of A carrier signal with a phase of A carrier signal with a phase of A carrier signal with a phase of

+45 represents 11 +135 represents 10 45 represents 01 135 represents 00

16

Digital Circuits & Systems w/Lab

Higher levels of PSK ( 8-PSK)

M =8 phases ( conditions) N= 3 bit per package

Digital Circuits & Systems w/Lab

17

Higher levels of PSK ( 16-PSK)

M =16 phases ( conditions) N= 4 bit per package

Digital Circuits & Systems w/Lab 18

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

Both phase and amplitude changes to create more conditions:

M =16 phases ( conditions) N= 4 bit per package This is better than 16-PSK because phases and amplitudes change and phases are further apart thus they are immune to transmission impairment.
Digital Circuits & Systems w/Lab 19

Bandwidth efficiency
Also called information density is usually used to compare the performance of one digital modulation technique to another. Bandwidth efficiency defined:
B=
() ()

Bit error rate (BER) is the systems actual bit error performance. If a system had BER of 105 in performance. It means that it had had 1 bit error per 100000 bits.
Digital Circuits & Systems w/Lab 20

Pulse Modulation
a- Analog signal b- Sample pulse c- Pulse width modulation (PWM) d- Pulse position modulation (PPM) e- Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) f- Pulse code modulation (PCM) Respect to the amplitude of the analog signal: width of pulse changes in PWM location of the pulse changes in PPM

Amplitude of the pulse changes, PAM

In PCM, analog signal sampled and sample value is converted to a binary value and transmitted

Pulse Code Modulation System

1St Samples to Pulse amplitude modulation 2nd ADC converted it to digital 3rd Parallel data is converted to digital for transmission through a wire During transmission signal bits are regenerated, amplified and reshaped

PCM Sampling

With natural sampling it is complicated for ADC to convert it to pulse code Mod. (PCM) due to the sample signal top shape being retained.

Flat top Sampling

Flat top sampling: A narrow pulse samples and holds the sample constant until the next sample. Each sample will be converted to digital by ADC. Figure 1 in http://www.analog.com/static/im ported-files/tutorials/MT-090.pdf shows a sample and hold circuit. Samples will be held during an ADC conversion.

Follow: http://cds.linear.com/docs/en/da tasheet/1420fa.pdf Observe a SAH circuit , in the first figure, prior to the 12 bit ADC

Nyquist Theorem Must Apply

Quantization Error (Quantization Noise)

Analog sample values may have to be rounded off to match the digital values: Example (Table 5-1): If there are 8 samples , a sample needs to equate one of the following: 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111 In this case an analog sample of 2.1 must round off to 2. 2 is represented by binary 110.

Nyquist Theorem

Sample rate needs to be, at least twice, the highest frequency that it is sampling. a- analog signal b- sampling c- PAM

However sampling in excess may slow a system.

Quantization error
Quantization error is half ( .5 ) the quantum. Worst error occurs at least significant bit

Resolution of an ADC = 2
Example: a 10 bit ADC with = 5 Resolution ( quantum value)=
5 210

= .0048 V= 4.8 millivolts

To determine the quantization error divide the sample voltage by resolution value, round the result off Then subtract sample from the rounded value Quantization error = sample voltage rounded result. Example For a sample of 10 millivolts , 10/4.8 = 2.083 rounds off to 2 , 2.083-2 = .083 is the error

Dynamic Range
DR is the ratio of the maximum magnitude divided by minimum magnitude that can be decoded by an ADC = practically, is equal to quantum value(resolution) = 20 log() Relation between DR and number of bits necessary in a PCM is 2 -1 DR = sign is used for minimum number of the bits =
log( +1) . log(2)

2 -1 = 20 log() =>

If dynamic range of an ADC 1024, then =

log( 1024+1) log(2)

= 10 bits

Companding
With companding the larger amplitude signals are compressed further than lower amplitude In the receiver, they expand(higher amplitude signals amplify more than the lower amplitude signals. 20 dB signal is compressed by 10 dB, while 10 dB signal compresses less, by 5 dB, and 0 dB signal is not compressed at all before transmission Companding improves Dynamic Range

PCM System with Compander

 Companding
=
ln(1+
( )

ln( 1+ )

is the parameter for compression)

Curves for analog companding

Digital system with companding

Companding curve(s) for digital companding

Digital companding values

Delta modulation
1 bit will be transmitted, bit with value 1 indicates that the current amplitude is larger than the previous one,
a 0 bit value indicates that the current amplitude is smaller than the previous one

Digital Line Encoding

Digital Line Encoding involves converting standard logic levels such as TTL to a suitable form for telephone transmission. Factors for Line Encoding Format
Transmission Voltages & DC Component Duty Cycle Bandwidth Considerations Clock & Frame Recovery Error Detection Ease of Detection & Decoding

Transmission Voltage & DC Components

Can be categorized as either unipolar or bipolar Unipolar involves transmission of only a single non zero voltage level Bipolar involves two non zero voltages are involved

Transmission Voltage & DC Components

Unipolar voltage is 0 or +V for logic 0 and logic 1. Bipolar is voltage +V for logic one and for logic 0 is it equal magnitude but negative. (-V)

With AMI logic one inverts polarity in respect to the previous logic one polarity

Duty Cycle
Duty cycle can be used to categorize transmission type. NRZ maintains a binary pulse for an entire bit time RZ does not maintain a binary pulse for an entire bit time Refer to Page 172 Table 6-3 for other factors

Homework Prep
Reading
Chapter 2: Signals, Noise, Modulation, and Demodulation (Sections: 1, 5, and 6) Chapter 5: Digital Transmission (All Sections) Chapter 6: Multiplexing and T Carriers (Section 5) Chapter 13: Data Communications Codes, Error Control, and Data Formats (Sections: 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, and 7)

Homework
Chapter 2: 10, 11, 12, 16, 17 Chapter 5: 1, 2, 5, 8 Chapter 6: 3, 5 Chapter 13: 2, 5, 7, 12, 13, 19

Lab
Complete iLab 2. A complete set of instructions can be found under the iLab content item.

41

Questions

42