THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The Nervous System

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Function of the Nervous System To coordinate the actions of your body To ensure effective behavior To maintain the internal environment within safe limits (homeostasis) Messages are relayed throughout the body via electrochemical messages from the brain or through chemical messengers hormones (hormones require more time than nervous transmission but are long lasting)
There are more nerve cells in the body than there are visible stars in the Milky Way! 1 cm3 of brain tissue houses several million neurons with each connecting with several thousand others
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Nervous Tissue
The nervous system is divided into a central nervous system (CNS), consisting of the brain and spinal cord, and a peripheral nervous system (PNS), consisting of nerves carrying sensory and motor information between the CNS and muscles and glands. Both systems have two types of cells: neurons that transmit impulses and neuroglial cells that support neurons. 17-4

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Organization of the nervous system

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Neuron Structure
Neurons are composed of dendrites that receive signals, a cell body with a nucleus, and an axon that conducts a nerve impulse away. Sensory neurons take information from sensory receptors to the CNS. Interneurons occur within the CNS and integrate input (nonmyelinated). Motor neurons take information from the CNS to muscles or glands.
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Types of neurons

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dendrites receive information (either from receptor cells or other nerve cells), conducting towards the cell body (~200 dendrites/cell body) cell body location of the nucleus, high metabolic rate (so contains mitochondria) axon may be 1m long, very thin, conducts the impulse towards other neurons or effectors, starts at axon hillock, the smaller the neuronal diameter, the faster the neuronal transmission
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nodes of Ranvier the unmyelinated sections of a myelinated neuron, impulses jump between the nodes of Ranvier neurilemma a thin layer encompassing neurons in the peripheral nervous system, promoting their regeneration
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Schwann cell responsible for the myelin synthesis, type of glial cell (supporting and nourishing cell found in the nervous system) Axon Bulb either at a synaptic bulb or end plate to muscle, contains neurotransmitter

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Myelin Sheath
Myelination covers long axons with a protective myelin sheath (made by neuroglial cells called Schwann cells). The sheath contains lipid myelin which gives nerve fibers their white, glistening appearance. The sheath is interrupted by gaps called nodes of Ranvier. Multiple sclerosis is a disease of the myelin sheath.
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Myelin sheath

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FYI
Nerves are generally comprised of many neurons together (like fibre optic cable) Myelinated neurons in the brain are termed white matter (the myelin makes them look white)

White matter may regenerate after injury, whereas grey matter (unprotected) will not
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The Nerve Impulse

The nervous system uses the nerve impulse to convey information. The nature of a nerve impulse has been studied by using excised axons and a voltmeter called an oscilloscope. Voltage (in millivolts, mV) measures the electrical potential difference between the inside and outside of the axon.
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Membrane Polarization (Resting Potential) When an axon is not conducting a nerve impulse, the inside of an axon is negative (70mV) compared to the outside(+40mV); this is the resting potential. To establish the 70mV potential in the cell:
Na+ is actively pumped out of the cell K+ is actively pumped into the cell
Sodium pump

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Membrane Polarization (Resting Potential)

Na+ and K+ diffuse down the concentration gradient, but K+ diffuses faster due to an increased number of ion channels (gates) open to K+ ions Since there is a net loss of positive ions to the outside of the cell, -70 mV is established inside the neuron There are also large negative proteins inside the neuron that contribute to the negative charge
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Resting potential

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Membrane Depolarization
When the nerve cell is excited, the membrane DEPOLARIZES (Action Potential) The membranes polarity changes: Na+ channels open, Na+ rushes in, K+ gates close The positive ions flowing in causes a charge reversal to +40 mV inside the neuron (gated channel proteins)
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Action potential

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Membrane Repolarization

Once the charge becomes positive, the Na+ gates close, K+ gates open, eventually restoring the charge inside the neuron to 70 mV (but the Na+ excess is inside and K+ excess is outside!) The Na/K Pump restores the ion concentrations inside and outside the cell

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Membrane Repolarization
During the repolarization, the nerve cannot be reactivated this is called the refractory period (1 to 10 ms) and is a recovery time for the neuron The pump requires ATP in order to operate

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The Na/K Pump

To be ready for another action potential, the membrane re-establishes the proper concentration gradient for sodium and potassium Three sodium ions are actively transported across the membrane and to the ECM Two potassium ions are then carried across to the cytoplasm
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Movement of the Action Potential The action in the neuron adjacent to an area of resting membrane causes that area to depolarize, moving the action potential along (due to attraction of opposite charges) Since the area from which the action potential came is still in recovery, the action potential will only move in one direction
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Propagation of an Action Potential

The action potential travels the length of an axon, with each portion of the axon undergoing depolarization then repolarization. A refractory period ensures that the action potential will not move backwards. In myelinated fibers, the action potential only occurs at the nodes of Ranvier. This jumping from node-to-node is called saltatory conduction. 17-27

Fig. 48-13

Schwann cell Depolarized region (node of Ranvier) Cell body Myelin sheath Axon

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The All-or-None Response (Threshold Potential) All neurons provide an all-or-none response: - in response to a stimulus, they either activate (fire) and provide a certain level of response, or dont fire at all A neuron will only fire if it is stimulated with an intensity of at least threshold level Every action potential for a neuron is identical in strength and duration (regardless of how much beyond threshold the stimulus is)
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Threshold Potential
All neurons differ in their threshold level To inform the brain of the intensity of a stimulus: - the frequency of firing is increased (not speed, which is constant for each neuron) - the number of neurons that respond to that level of stimulus can increase (neurons may have different threshold)
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Transmission Across a Synapse

The junction between neurons or neurons & effectors is called the synapse. Transmission of a nerve impulse takes place when a neurotransmitter molecule stored in synaptic vesicles in the axon bulb is released into a synaptic cleft between the axon and the receiving neuron.
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When a nerve impulse reaches an axon bulb, calcium channels open and Ca2+ flow into the bulb. This sudden rise in Ca2+ causes synaptic vesicles to move and merge with the presynaptic membrane, releasing their neurotransmitter molecules into the synapse The binding of the neurotransmitter to receptors in the postsynaptic membrane causes either excitation or inhibition.
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Synapse structure and function

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Synaptic Summation
Many synapses per single neuron is not uncommon. Excitatory signals have a depolarizing effect, and inhibitory signals have a hyperpolarizing effect on the post- synaptic membrane. Summation is the summing up of these excitatory and inhibitory signals.
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Summation

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Summation

Neurotransmitter Molecules
Out of 25, two well-known neurotransmitters are acetylcholine (ACh) and norepinephrine (NE). Neurotransmitters that have done their job are removed from the cleft; the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) breaks down acetylcholine. Neurotransmitter molecules are removed from the cleft by enzymatic breakdown or by reabsorption, thus preventing continuous stimulation or inhibition.
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FYI
most synapses involve more than just 2 neurons (or neuron/effectors) neurotransmitters move only by diffusion, so synaptic transmission is MUCH slower than axonal transmission. insecticides interfere with enzymes that break down neurotransmitters causing their hearts to remain contracted, whereas LSD and other hallucinogens are believed to bind to the receptor sites for neurotransmitters
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 Lidocaine, an anesthetic works by stabilizing the neuronal membrane so it cant depolarize Endorphins and enkephalins are natural painkillers produced in the CNS, blocking the pain transmitter that usually attaches to the injured organ allowing the perception of pain opiates (heroin, codeine, morphine) block the production of the pain transmitter. Since they act to decrease the production of natural painkillers, the amount of opiate taken must be increased or at least maintained to maintain the effect
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 Valium and other depressants are believed to enhance the action of inhibitory synapses Alcohol acts to increase the polarization of the membrane, increasing the threshold Since many neurons will connect to a postsynaptic neuron, it is the summation of the effects of the presynaptic neurons that determine whether or not the postsynaptic neuron or effector will depolarize
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Neural Circuits includes neuronal and synaptic transmission There are two types of neural circuits
complicated neural circuits, involving conscious thought reflex arcs without brain coordination
often unconscious, involuntary and faster than when thought is required (why are these useful?)
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Nervous Control (in general)

StimulusReceptorSensoryNeuronInterneuron BrainInterneuronMotorNeuronEffectorResponse

Reflex Arc (see diagram the reflex arc)

StimulusReceptorSensoryNeuronInterneuron (spinal cord)MotorNeuronEffectorResponse

When the response is made at the spinal cord level (information does not have to go to the brain to be processed), the response is quick (and always correct given the circumstances) Reflexes protect the body from injury
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The Central Nervous System

The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the spinal cord and brain. Both are protected by bone, wrapped in protective membranes called meninges, and surrounded and cushioned with cerebrospinal fluid that is produced in the ventricles of the brain.
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The ventricles are interconnecting cavities that produce and serve as a reservoir for cerebrospinal fluid. The CNS receives and integrates sensory input and formulates motor output. Gray matter contains cell bodies and short, nonmyelinated fibers; white matter contains myelinated axons that run in tracts.
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The Brain
consumes more oxygen and glucose than any other part of the body meninges outer layers (protection) dura mater, arachnoid and pia mater cerebrospinal fluid between the inner, middle meninges & central canal of s.cord, carries nutrients, acts as a shock absorber, relays waste by diffusion & fac. diffusion, flows within ventricles four spaces in the brain

The Human Brain

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Fig. 49-15

Frontal lobe

Parietal lobe

Frontal association area Speech

Speech Taste

Somatosensory association area Reading

Hearing Smell Auditory association area Visual association area Vision Temporal lobe Occipital lobe

Fig. 49-17

Max

Hearing words

Seeing words

Min
Speaking words Generating words

Fig. 49-1

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The Cerebral Cortex

The cerebral cortex is a thin, highly convoluted outer layer of gray matter covering both hemispheres. The primary motor area is in the frontal lobe; this commands skeletal muscle. The primary somatosensory area is dorsal to the central sulcus or groove.
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Forebrain (cerebrum) contains two hemispheres for coordinating sensory and motor information speech, reasoning, memory, personality, which may be located on one side only
the outer layer is called the cerebral cortex (only 1 mm thick), deeply folded into fissures(to increase surface area)

Cerebral hemispheres

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Forebrain
- the two hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum allowing info to be shared between the hemispheres (a collection of nerve fibres) which are sometimes severed to control epilepsy leading to interesting results - the cerebrum can be subdivided into 4 lobes
1. Frontal (walking, speech, intellect, personality), 2. temporal (hearing,vision, memory, interpretation), 3. parietal (interpreting sensory info receptors, long term memory) and 4. occipital (vision) lobes

Brocas area - a part of the left hemisphere usually where speech centre is located

The lobes of a cerebral hemisphere

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Forebrain
thalamus- below cerebrum, coordinates and interprets sensory info hypothalamus below the thalamus, related to pituitary, connects endocrine to the nervous system, receives sensory info, instincts, temperature control (ANS) pituitary gland influenced by the hypthalamus, part of the endocrine system (master gland) pineal gland part of the endocrine system melatonin production

 midbrain - less developed in humans than the forebrain, 4 spheres relay centre for some eye and ear reflexes Hindbrain - located behind the midbrain, connects brain to spinal cord
contains cerebellum (coordinates movement, balance, muscle tone), The cerebellum is involved in learning of new motor skills, such as playing the piano. pons (relay station between cerebellum areas, and cerebellum & medulla) medulla oblongata (connection between peripheral and CNS, involuntary movements heart rate, breathing (ANS), crossover of control)

FYI
much brain research takes place during brain surgery & after people have strokes epileptics also provide insight into brain differentiation when they undergo severing of the corpus callosum to relieve extremely serious seizures although the brain must control the entire body, the volume of brain allocated to each part of the body is not proportional to that body parts size the face and hands account for the majority of the motor cortexs attention

Fig. 49-16

Frontal lobe

Parietal lobe

Leg

Toes

Genitals

Jaw

Primary motor cortex

Abdominal organs

Primary somatosensory cortex

Language and Speech

Language and speech are dependent upon Brocas area (a motor speech area) and Wernickes area (a sensory speech area) that are involved in communication. These two areas are located only in the left hemisphere; the left hemisphere functions in language in general and not just in speech.
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Language and speech

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Organization of the nervous system

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The Spinal Cord

The spinal cord extends from the base of the brain through the vertebral canal.

Structure of the Spinal Cord

A central canal holds cerebrospinal fluid. Gray matter of the spinal cord forms an H and contains interneurons and portions of sensory and motor neurons. White matter consists of ascending tracts taking sensory information to the brain and descending tracts carrying motor information from the brain.
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 ventral root (towards front of body) carries motor neuron messages to muscles dorsal root (towards back) carries sensory neuron messages from the body

Spinal cord

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Functions of the Spinal Cord

The spinal cord is the center for many reflex arcs. It also sends sensory information to the brain and receives motor output from the brain, extending communication from the brain to the peripheral nerves for both control of voluntary skeletal muscles and involuntary internal organs. Severing the spinal cord produces paralysis.
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The Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) contains nerves (bundles of axons) and ganglia (cell bodies). Sensory nerves carry information to the CNS, motor nerves carry information away Humans have 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves.

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Nerve structure

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Cranial nerves

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The dorsal root of a spinal nerve contains sensory fibers that conduct sensory impulses from sensory receptors toward the spinal cord. Dorsal root ganglia near the spinal cord contain the cell bodies of sensory neurons. The ventral root of a spinal nerve contains motor fibers that conduct impulses away from the spinal cord to effectors.

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Spinal nerves

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Somatic System
The somatic system serves the skin, skeletal muscles, and tendons. The brain is always involved in voluntary muscle actions but somatic system reflexes are automatic and may not require involvement of the brain. nerves running to skeletal muscle system (under voluntary control) motor neurons voluntary effectors (skeletal muscle) control exists in the cerebrum & cerebellum (coordination)
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Homeostasis and the Autonomic Nervous System

All autonomic nerves are motor nerves that regulate the organs of the body without conscious control; involuntary Control exists in the medulla Effectors are smooth muscle (digestive system), cardiac muscle (heart) and glands (exocrine & endocrine) Responsible for maintaining homeostasis during times of rest and during emergencies

Consists of two parts:

Sympathetic
prepares the body for stress, including fight or flight response short preganglionic nerve (Ach), long postganglionic nerve (NEp) originate in the thoracic vertebrae (ribs) or lumbar vertebrae (small of back)

Parasympathetic
restores normal balance; times of relaxation long preganglionic nerve (Ach), short postganglionic nerve (ACh) originate in the brain (cranial nerves) or the spinal cord

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Fig. 49-8

Parasympathetic division
Action on target organs:

Sympathetic division Action on target organs: Dilates pupil of eye Inhibits salivary gland secretion Sympathetic ganglia Relaxes bronchi in lungs Accelerates heart Inhibits activity of stomach and intestines Inhibits activity of pancreas Stimulates glucose release from liver; inhibits gallbladder Lumbar Stimulates adrenal medulla

Constricts pupil of eye

Stimulates salivary gland secretion Constricts bronchi in lungs Slows heart Stimulates activity of stomach and intestines Cervical

Thoracic

Stimulates activity of pancreas

Stimulates gallbladder

Promotes emptying of bladder Promotes erection of genitals Sacral Synapse

Inhibits emptying of bladder Promotes ejaculation and vaginal contractions

Autonomic nervous system

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Disorders Associated With the Nervous System

Parkinsons Disease: inadequate production of dopamine in the brain causes involuntary muscle contractions and tremors; can be partially alleviated with Ldopa (synthetic dopamine)

 Alzheimers Disease: decrease in CNS levels of acetylcholine Multiple Sclerosis: degeneration of the Myelin sheath; Many symptoms, partial paralysis, double vision,speech problems Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (Lou Gehrig's disease (ALS) : genetic disease causing motor neurons to die; muscle control is lost, increased salivation, cramping, twitching

 Epilepsy: brain injury or lack of oxygen to the brain; Seizures grand mal or petit mal transient loss of muscle control Spinal Cord Injuries: through injury or disease, the spinal neurons are damaged, Results in loss of motor control -degree of which depends on where the damage occurred

 Hydrocephalus: water on the brain excess cerebrospinal fluid in the brain Increased pressure may lead to brain damage Cerebral Palsy: Usually caused by oxygen deficiency before/during birth, reduced muscle coordination (cerebral damage)

Drug Abuse
Stimulants increase excitation, and depressants decrease excitation; either can lead to physical dependence.
Each type of drug has been found to either promote or prevent the action of a particular neurotransmitter. Medications that counter drug effects work by affecting the release, reception, or breakdown of dopamine, a neurotransmitter responsible for mood.
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Drug actions at a synapse

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A drug can affect a neurotransmitter in these ways: (a) cause leakage out of a synaptic vesicle into the axon bulb; (b) prevent release of the neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft; (c) promote release of the neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft; (d) prevent reuptake by the presynaptic membrane; (e) block the enzyme that causes breakdown of the neurotransmitter; or (f) bind to a receptor, mimicking the action or preventing the uptake of a neurotransmitter.

Drug use

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Alcohol
neurotransmitter. Alcohol is primarily metabolized in liver and heavy doses can cause liver scar tissue and cirrhosis. Alcohol is an energy source but it lacks nutrients needed for health. Cirrhosis of the liver and fetal alcohol syndrome are serious conditions associated with alcohol intake.
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Alcohol may affect the inhibiting transmitter GABA or glutamate, an excitatory

Nicotine
Nicotine is an alkaloid derived from tobacco.
In the CNS, nicotine causes neurons to release dopamine; in the PNS, nicotine mimics the activity of acetylcholine and increases heart rate, blood pressure, and digestive tract mobility. Nicotine induces both physiological and psychological dependence.
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Cocaine
Cocaine is an alkaloid derived from the shrub Erythroxylum cocoa, often sold as potent extract termed crack. Cocaine prevents uptake of dopamine by the

presynaptic membrane, is highly likely to cause physical dependence, and requires higher doses to overcome tolerance. This makes overdosing is a real possibility; overdosing can cause seizures and cardiac arrest.
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Heroin
Derived from morphine, heroin is an alkaloid of opium. Use of heroin causes euphoria. Heroin alleviates pain by binding to receptors meant for the bodys own pain killers which are the endorphins. Tolerance rapidly develops and withdrawal symptoms are severe.
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Marijuana
Marijuana is obtained from the plant Cannabis sativa that contains a resin

rich in THC (tetrahydrocannabinol). Effects include psychosis and delirium and regular use can lead to dependence. Long-term marijuana use may lead to brain impairment, and a fetal cannabis syndrome has been reported.
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Chapter Summary
The nervous system consists of two types of cells: neurons and mesoglia. Neurons are specialized to carry nerve impulses. A nerve impulse is an electrochemical change that travels along the length of a neuron fiber. Transmission of signals between neurons is dependent on neurotransmitter molecules.
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The central nervous system is made up of the spinal cord and the brain. The parts of the brain are specialized for particular functions. The cerebral cortex contains motor areas, sensory areas, and association areas that are in communication with each other. The cerebellum is responsible for maintaining posture; the brainstem houses 17-93 reflexes for homeostasis.

The reticular formation contains fibers that arouse the brain when active and account for sleep when they are inactive. The limbic system contains specialized areas that are involved in higher mental functions and emotional responses. Long-term memory depends upon association areas that are in contact with the limbic system. 17-94

There are particular areas in the left hemisphere that are involved in language and speech. The peripheral nervous system contains nerves that conduct nerve impulses toward and away from the central nervous system. The autonomic nervous system has sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions with counteracting activities. Use of psychoactive drugs such as alcohol, nicotine, marijuana, cocaine, and heroin is detrimental to the body.
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