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Background The Critical-Section Problem Synchronization Hardware Semaphores Classical Problems of Synchronization Critical Regions Monitors Synchronization in Solaris 2 Atomic Transactions
Deadlock Prevention
Deadlock Avoidance Deadlock Detection Recovery from Deadlock Combined Approach to Deadlock Handling
6.1
Background
6.2
Bounded-Buffer
Shared data type item = ; var buffer array [0..n-1] of item; in, out: 0..n-1; counter: 0..n; in, out, counter := 0;
Producer process repeat produce an item in nextp while counter = n do no-op; buffer [in] := nextp; in := in + 1 mod n; counter := counter +1; until false;
6.3
Bounded-Buffer (Cont.)
Consumer process repeat while counter = 0 do no-op; nextc := buffer [out]; out := out + 1 mod n; counter := counter 1; consume the item in nextc until false; The statements: counter := counter + 1; counter := counter - 1; must be executed atomically.
6.4
exit section
reminder section until false;
6.5
1. Mutual Exclusion. If process Pi is executing in its critical section, then no other processes can be executing in their critical sections.
2. Progress. If no process is executing in its critical section and there exist some processes that wish to enter their critical section, then the selection of the processes that will enter the critical section next cannot be postponed indefinitely. 3. Bounded Waiting. A bound must exist on the number of times that other processes are allowed to enter their critical sections after a process has made a request to enter its critical section and before that request is granted. Assume that each process executes at a nonzero speed No assumption concerning relative speed of the n processes.
6.6
until false;
6.7
Algorithm 1
Shared variables: var turn: (0..1); initially turn = 0 turn - i Pi can enter its critical section Process Pi repeat while turn i do no-op; critical section turn := j; reminder section until false;
6.8
Algorithm 2
Shared variables var flag: array [0..1] of boolean; initially flag [0] = flag [1] = false. flag [i] = true Pi ready to enter its critical section Process Pi repeat
remainder section
until false;
Algorithm 3
Combined shared variables of algorithms 1 and 2. Process Pi
repeat
flag [i] := true; turn := j; while (flag [j] and turn = j) do no-op; critical section flag [i] := false; remainder section until false;
Meets all three requirements; solves the critical-section problem for two processes.
6.10
Bakery Algorithm
Critical section for n processes
Before entering its critical section, process receives a number. Holder of the smallest number enters the critical section.
If processes Pi and Pj receive the same number, if i < j, then Pi is served first; else Pj is served first. The numbering scheme always generates numbers in increasing order of enumeration; i.e., 1,2,3,3,3,3,4,5...
6.11
Notation < lexicographical order (ticket #, process id #) (a,b) < c,d) if a < c or if a = c and b < d max (a0,, an-1) is a number, k, such that k ai for i - 0, , n 1
Shared data var choosing: array [0..n 1] of boolean; number: array [0..n 1] of integer, Data structures are initialized to false and 0 respectively
6.12
repeat choosing[i] := true; number[i] := max(number[0], number[1], , number [n 1])+1; choosing[i] := false; for j := 0 to n 1 do begin while choosing[j] do no-op; while number[j] 0 and (number[j],j) < (number[i], i) do no-op; end; critical section number[i] := 0; remainder section until false;
6.13
Synchronization Hardware
6.14
until false;
6.15
Semaphore
6.16
repeat
wait(mutex); critical section signal(mutex); remainder section until false;
6.17
Semaphore Implementation
Assume two simple operations: block suspends the process that invokes it. wakeup(P) resumes the execution of a blocked process P.
6.18
Implementation (Cont.)
if S.value < 0
then begin add this process to S.L; block;
end;
signal(S): S.value := S.value = 1; if S.value 0 then begin remove a process P from S.L; wakeup(P); end;
6.19
6.20
Deadlock two or more processes are waiting indefinitely for an event that can be caused by only one of the waiting processes.
Let S and Q be two semaphores initialized to 1 P0 P1
wait(S);
wait(Q); signal(S); signal(Q)
wait(Q);
wait(S); signal(Q); signal(S);
Starvation indefinite blocking. A process may never be removed from the semaphore queue in which it is suspended.
6.21
6.22
Data structures:
var S1: binary-semaphore; S2: binary-semaphore; S3: binary-semaphore; C: integer; Initialization: S1 = S3 = 1 S2 = 0 C = initial value of semaphore S
6.23
Implementing S (Cont.)
wait operation wait(S3); wait(S1); C := C 1; if C < 0 then begin signal(S1); wait(S2); end else signal(S1); signal(S3); signal operation
Bounded-Buffer Problem
Readers and Writers Problem Dining-Philosophers Problem
6.25
Bounded-Buffer Problem
Shared data
type item = var buffer = full, empty, mutex: semaphore; nextp, nextc: item; full :=0; empty := n; mutex :=1;
6.26
Producer process
repeat produce an item in nextp wait(empty); wait(mutex); signal(mutex); signal(full); until false;
6.27
Consumer process repeat wait(full) wait(mutex); remove an item from buffer to nextc signal(mutex); signal(empty); consume the item in nextc until false;
6.28
Readers-Writers Problem
Shared data
var mutex, wrt: semaphore (=1); readcount : integer (=0);
6.29
Reader process wait(mutex); readcount := readcount +1; if readcount = 1 then wait(wrt); signal(mutex); reading is performed wait(mutex); readcount := readcount 1; if readcount = 0 then signal(wrt);
signal(mutex):
6.30
Dining-Philosophers Problem
Shared data
var chopstick: array [0..4] of semaphore; (=1 initially)
6.31
Philosopher i: repeat wait(chopstick[i]) wait(chopstick[i+1 mod 5]) eat signal(chopstick[i]); signal(chopstick[i+1 mod 5]); think until false;
6.32
Critical Regions
6.33
Regions referring to the same shared variable exclude each other in time.
When a process tries to execute the region statement, the Boolean expression B is evaluated. If B is true, statement S is executed. If it is false, the process is delayed until B becomes true and no other process is in the region associated with v.
6.34
Shared variables:
var buffer: shared record pool: array [0..n1] of item; count,in,out: integer
end;
Producer process inserts nextp into the shared buffer region buffer when count < n do begin pool[in] := nextp; in:= in+1 mod n; count := count + 1; end;
6.35
Consumer process removes an item from the shared buffer and puts it in nextc
region buffer when count > 0 do begin nextc := pool[out]; out := out+1 mod n; count := count 1; end;
6.36
6.37
Implementation (Cont.)
Keep track of the number of processes waiting on first-delay and second-delay, with first-count and second-count respectively.
The algorithm assumes a FIFO ordering in the queuing of processes for a semaphore. For an arbitrary queuing discipline, a more complicated implementation is required.
6.38
wait(mutex); while not B do begin first-count := first-count + 1; if second-count > 0 then signal(second-delay) else signal(mutex); wait(first-delay): first-count := first-count 1; if first-count > 0 then signal(first-delay) else signal(second-delay); wait(second-delay); second-count := second-count 1; end; S; if first-count >0 then signal(first-delay); else if second-count >0 then signal(second-delay); else signal(mutex);
6.39
Monitors
High-level synchronization construct that allows the safe sharing of an abstract data type among concurrent processes. type monitor-name = monitor variable declarations procedure entry P1 :(); begin end; procedure entry P2(); begin end; procedure entry Pn (); beginend; begin initialization code end
6.40
Monitors (Cont.)
To allow a process to wait within the monitor, a condition variable must be declared, as
var x, y: condition Condition variable can only be used with the operations wait and signal. The operation x.wait; means that the process invoking this opeation is suspended until another process invokes x.signal; The x.signal operation resumes exactly one suspended process. If no process is suspended, then the signal operation has no effect.
6.41
6.42
6.43
for i := 0 to 4
do state[i] := thinking; end.
6.45
Variables
var mutex: semaphore (init = 1) next: semaphore (init = 0) next-count: integer (init = 0)
Each external procedure F will be replaced by wait(mutex); body of F; if next-count > 0 then signal(next) else signal(mutex); Mutual exclusion within a monitor is ensured.
6.46
For each condition variable x, we have: var x-sem: semaphore (init = 0) x-count: integer (init = 0) The operation x.wait can be implemented as:
x-count := x-count + 1; if next-count >0 then signal(next) else signal(mutex); wait(x-sem); x-count := x-count 1;
6.47
The operation x.signal can be implemented as: if x-count > 0 then begin next-count := next-count + 1; signal(x-sem); wait(next); next-count := next-count 1; end;
6.48
Conditional-wait construct: x.wait(c); c integer expression evaluated when the wait opertion is executed. value of c (priority number) stored with the name of the process that is suspended. when x.signal is executed, process with smallest associated priority number is resumed next.
Check tow conditions to establish correctness of system: User processes must always make their calls on the monitor in a correct sequence. Must ensure that an uncooperative process does not ignore the mutual-exclusion gateway provided by the monitor, and try to access the shared resource directly, without using the access protocols.
6.49
Implements a variety of locks to support multitasking, multithreading (including real-time threads), and multiprocessing.
Uses adaptive mutexes for efficiency when protecting data from short code segments. Uses condition variables and readers-writers locks when longer sections of code need access to data.
6.50
A set of blocked processes each holding a resource and waiting to acquire a resource held by another process in the set.
Example System has 2 tape drives. P1 and P2 each hold one tape drive and each needs another one. Example semaphores A and B, initialized to 1
P1 wait(B) wait(A)
Silberschatz and Galvin1999
6.51
Traffic only in one direction. Each section of a bridge can be viewed as a resource. If a deadlock occurs, it can be resolved if one car backs up (preempt resources and rollback). Several cars may have to be backed upif a deadlock occurs. Starvation is possible.
6.52
System Model
Resource types R1, R2, . . ., Rm CPU cycles, memory space, I/O devices
Each resource type Ri has Wi instances. Each process utilizes a resource as follows: request use release
6.53
Deadlock Characterization
Deadlock can arise if four conditions hold simultaneously.
6.54
Resource-Allocation Graph
V is partitioned into two types: P = {P1, P2, , Pn}, the set consisting of all the processes in the system.
R = {R1, R2, , Rm}, the set consisting of all resource types in the system.
6.55
Process
Pi requests instance of Rj Pi
Rj
Pi is holding an instance of Rj
Pi
Rj
6.56
6.57
6.58
6.59
Basic Facts
If graph contains no cycles no deadlock.
If graph contains a cycle if only one instance per resource type, then deadlock. if several instances per resource type, possibility of deadlock.
6.60
6.61
Deadlock Prevention
Restrain the ways request can be made.
Mutual Exclusion not required for sharable resources; must hold for nonsharable resources. Hold and Wait must guarantee that whenever a process requests a resource, it does not hold any other resources. Require process to request and be allocated all its resources before it begins execution, or allow process to request resources only when the process has none. Low resource utilization; starvation possible.
6.62
No Preemption If a process that is holding some resources requests another resource that cannot be immediately allocated to it, then all resources currently being held are released. Preempted resources are added to the list of resources for which the process is waiting. Process will be restarted only when it can regain its old resources, as well as the new ones that it is requesting.
Circular Wait impose a total ordering of all resource types, and require that each process requests resources in an increasing order of enumeration.
6.63
Deadlock Avoidance
Requires that the system has some additional a priori information available.
Simplest and most useful model requires that each process declare the maximum number of resources of each type that it may need.
The deadlock-avoidance algorithm dynamically examines the resource-allocation state to ensure that there can never be a circular-wait condition. Resource-allocation state is defined by the number of available and allocated resources, and the maximum demands of the processes.
6.64
Safe State
When a process requests an available resource, system must decide if immediate allocation leaves the system in a safe state.
System is in safe state if there exists a safe sequence of all processes. Sequence <P1, P2, , Pn> is safe if for each Pi, the resources that Pi can still request can be satisfied by currently available resources + resources held by all the Pj, with j<I. If Pi resource needs are not immediately available, then Pi can wait until all Pj have finished. When Pj is finished, Pi can obtain needed resources, execute, return allocated resources, and terminate. When Pi terminates, Pi+1 can obtain its needed resources, and so on.
6.65
Basic Facts
If a system is in safe state no deadlocks.
If a system is in unsafe state possibility of deadlock. Avoidance ensure that a system will never enter an unsafe state.
6.66
6.67
Claim edge Pi Rj indicated that process Pj may request resource Rj; represented by a dashed line.
Claim edge converts to request edge when a process requests a resource. When a resource is released by a process, assignment edge reconverts to a claim edge. Resources must be claimed a priori in the system.
6.68
6.69
6.70
Bankers Algorithm
Multiple instances.
Each process must a priori claim maximum use. When a process requests a resource it may have to wait. When a process gets all its resources it must return them in a finite amount of time.
6.71
Available: Vector of length m. If available [j] = k, there are k instances of resource type Rj available. Max: n x m matrix. If Max [i,j] = k, then process Pi may request at most k instances of resource type Rj. Allocation: n x m matrix. If Allocation[i,j] = k then Pi is currently allocated k instances of Rj. Need: n x m matrix. If Need[i,j] = k, then Pi may need k more instances of Rj to complete its task. Need [i,j] = Max[i,j] Allocation [i,j].
6.72
Safety Algorithm
1. Let Work and Finish be vectors of length m and n, respectively. Initialize: Work := Available Finish [i] = false for i - 1,3, , n.
2. Find and i such that both: (a) Finish [i] = false (b) Needi Work If no such i exists, go to step 4. 3. Work := Work + Allocationi Finish[i] := true go to step 2. 4. If Finish [i] = true for all i, then the system is in a safe state.
6.73
6.74
5 processes P0 through P4; 3 resource types A (10 instances), B (5instances, and C (7 instances).
Snapshot at time T0: Allocation Max Available
ABC
P0 P1 P2 P3 P4 010 200 302 211 002
ABC
753 322 902 222 433
ABC
332
6.75
Example (Cont.)
P4
431
The system is in a safe state since the sequence < P1, P3, P4, P2, P0> satisfies safety criteria.
6.76
Check that Request Available (that is, (1,0,2) (3,3,2) true. Allocation ABC P0 P1 010 302 Need ABC 743 020 Available ABC 230
P2
P3 P4
301
211 002
600
011 431
Executing safety algorithm shows that sequence <P1, P3, P4, P0, P2> satisfies safety requirement. Can request for (3,3,0) by P4 be granted? Can request for (0,2,0) by P0 be granted?
6.77
Deadlock Detection
6.78
6.79
Resource-Allocation Graph
6.80
6.81
Detection Algorithm
1. Let Work and Finish be vectors of length m and n, respectively Initialize: (a) Work :- Available (b) For i = 1,2, , n, if Allocationi 0, then Finish[i] := false;otherwise, Finish[i] := true.
2. Find an index i such that both: (a) Finish[i] = false (b) Requesti Work If no such i exists, go to step 4.
6.82
6.83
Five processes P0 through P4; three resource types A (7 instances), B (2 instances), and C (6 instances).
Snapshot at time T0: Allocation Request Available
ABC
P0 P1 P2 P3 P4 010 200 303 211 002
ABC
000 202 000 100 002
ABC
000
Sequence <P0, P2, P3, P1, P4> will result in Finish[i] = true for all i.
Silberschatz and Galvin1999
6.84
Example (Cont.)
P4
002
State of system? Can reclaim resources held by process P0, but insufficient resources to fulfill other processes; requests. Deadlock exists, consisting of processes P1, P2, P3, and P4.
6.85
Detection-Algorithm Usage
When, and how often, to invoke depends on: How often a deadlock is likely to occur? How many processes will need to be rolled back? one for each disjoint cycle
If detection algorithm is invoked arbitrarily, there may be many cycles in the resource graph and so we would not be able to tell which of the many deadlocked processes caused the deadlock.
6.86
6.87
6.88
Partition resources into hierarchically ordered classes. Use most appropriate technique for handling deadlocks within each class.
6.89