Cytology, the study of the structure and function of cells

The human body contains both somatic and sex cells

Histology is the science that

studies the microscopic structure of normal tissues.

The cell theory states:

Cells are the building blocks of all plants and animals Cells are produced by the division of preexisting cells Cells are the smallest units that perform all vital physiological functions Each cell maintains homeostasis at the cellular level

Homeostasis at higher levels reflects combined, coordinated action of many cells

The Diversity of Cells in the Human Body

Figure 3.1

General Subdivisions of a Cell

A. Nucleus (regulatory center of the cell) B. Cell Membrane (selectively permeable boundary between the cell and the environment)

C. Cytoplasm (everything between the cell membrane and the nuclear compartment)

Organelles are individual compartments in the cytoplasm

Cell Membrane

Cell membrane components phospholipid bilayer transmembrane (integral) and peripheral proteins interior protein network elements of the cytoskeleton cell surface markers glycocalyx (proteoglycans, glycolipids, glycoproteins)

Fluid-mosaic model of membrane structure

Plasma or Cell Membrane

OUTSIDE LIPID BILAYER

INSIDE

Fluid Mosaic Model of Membrane Structure

Membrane Proteins Outer Surface

Cholesterol Cytoplasm

Functions of the cell membrane

Selectively

isolates the cells contents from the external environment and serves as a barrier
the exchange of substances between the inside and outside of the cell transport function function

Regulate

Receptor

The phospholipid bilayer is the fluid portion of the membrane

Double layer Polar head group: hydrophilic exterior Non-polar hydrocarbon tails: hydrophobic interior

Cholesterol molecules are part of the lipid bilayer

Adds strength Adds flexibility Affects fluidity

Membrane proteins:
Classified by position: Integral proteins Peripheral proteins

Classified by function: Anchoring proteins Recognition proteins Receptor proteins Carrier proteins Channels

Membrane proteins

Integral and peripheral proteins

Types of membrane proteins functional classification

Transport proteins

For passage of materials through the plasma membrane

Channel vs. carrier proteins

Receptor proteins

Bind molecules and trigger cellular responses

Example: hormones

Recognition proteins

Self vs. non-self (glycoprotein-based) recognition Markers during development

2. Movement of substances across membranes

Definitions

Concentration
Number

of molecules in a given volume

Gradient
Differences

in concentration between two regions of

space.

This causes molecules to move from one region to the other (if no barrier to movement)

Diffusion
Net

movement of molecules from regions of high concentration to regions of low concentration

Considered as movement down its concentration gradient

Diffusion of Dye in Water

Dispersing

Random Dispersal

Time 0
Steep Concentration Gradient

Time 1
Reduced Concentration Gradient

Time 2
No Concentration Gradient

Passive and active transport

Passive transport
Movement of molecules down their concentration gradients Requires no net energy expenditure

The

gradients themselves provide energy

Active transport
Movement of molecules against their concentration gradients Requires energy!

Passive transport
1. 2. 3. 4. Simple diffusion Facilitated diffusion Osmosis Filtration
Remember that no energy is required, and molecules move down their concentration gradients

Passive transport
1. Simple diffusion

Molecules simply cross cell membrane on their own, down their concentration gradients
Possible only for molecules that can cross the lipid bilayer on their own

Lipid-soluble molecules

Examples: ethyl alcohol, vitamin A, steroid hormones Examples: water, carbon dioxide

Very small molecules

Rate depends upon

Concentration gradient Size Lipid solubility

Passive transport
2. Facilitated diffusion

Molecules move down their concentration gradients (as for simple diffusion), but Transport proteins assist these molecules in crossing the membrane No net energy expenditure! (This is a type of diffusion)

Example: transport of glucose

Passive transport:
Facilitated diffusion via a channel

Passive transport:
Facilitated diffusion via a carrier protein
(Outside Cell) Diffusion Channel Protein Molecule in Transit

Diffusion Gradient
Carrier protein has binding site for molecule

Molecule enters binding site

Carrier protein changes shape, transporting molecule across membrane

Carrier protein resumes original shape

(Inside Cell)

Facilitated diffusion is passive diffusion with the help of transport proteins

Passive transport
3. Osmosis

Movement of water from a high [water] to an area of low [water] concentration across a semipermeable membrane

Note here that water can pass through, but glucose cannot

The effects of osmosis

Compare solute and water concentrations outside vs. inside the cell (sketches)

H2O

H2O

Active Transport
1. Movement via active transport proteins (sodium-potassium pump)

Remember that energy is required, and molecules are moved against their concentration gradients

Bulk (vesicular) transport

Exocytosis - movement of materials out of the cell by fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane

Example - export or removal of wastes in single-celled organisms Example cells exporting proteins Pinocytosis, "cell drinking" extra cellular fluid and materials suspended in it (water and solutes) are enclosed in invaginating vesicle

Endocytosis Infolding of the plasma membrane to bring large materials into the cell

Used in digestive tract

Receptor-mediated endocytosis more specific with receptor binding to molecules, bringing them in and concentrating into a coated pit

The way insulin gets into your cells.

Phagocytosis "cell eating" brings large materials into a cell by wrapping extensions of the plasma membrane around the materials and fusing the extension together.

How the human immune system ingests whole bacteria or one-celled creatures eat pseudopodia false feet plasma membrane extensions

Bulk (vesicular) transport

1. Endocytosis

Three types of endocytosis

Pinocytosis

cell drinking Extracellular fluid taken in

Receptor-mediated endocytosis

Specific for particular molecules Molecules bind to receptors. Receptor-molecule complex taken in

Phagocytosis

Large particles engulfed

Mmm...yummy bacteria!!

Help! Im to be broken down to mere macromolecules!!

Bulk (vesicular) transport

2. Exocytosis

3. Transcytosis

Transcytosis in endothelial cells of the capillary Can see this phenomena in continuous capillaries
Muscle, connective tissue, exocrine glands and nervous tissue

Transport macromolecules in both directions.

lumen

Pinocytotic vesicles can cross cell in about 2-3 minutes.

Tight Junctions

Seal tissues and prevent leaks Link epithelial cells together Prevent things from moving through the intercellular space Restrict migration of proteins and phospholipids

Tight junctions

Extracellular surfaces of two adjacent plasma membranes are joined together so there is no extracellular space between them Occurs in a band around the entire cell

Belt desmosome

Zonula adherens Another belt around the cell Below the tight junctions An anchorage junction Associated with actin filaments Space between membranes can be seen

Desmosomes

Like spot welds! Dense plaques with fibers attachedAnchor cells together from one side to the other. These cells withstand lots of abuse!

Spot Desmosomes
A region between two cells where membranes are separated by 20nm Dense accumulation of protein at the cytoplasmic surface of the membrane

Desmosomes, contd
Keratin fibers extend from the cytoplasmic surface to other side of cell to next desmosome Holds adjacent cells together in areas of stretching

skin, cardiac muscle

Hemidesmosome
Assymetrical structures A plate anchors the basal part of cell to the basal lamina This plate contains IFs called keratins or tonofilaments Membrane plaque linking hemidesmosome to basal lamina via anchoring filaments Contributes to overall stability of

Hemidesmosomes

Gap junctions

Protein channels link the cytosols of cells

Passage of small molecules and ions (Na+, K+) Excludes large molecules Transmits electrical activity between cardiac and smooth muscle cells Allows chemical messengers to cross from one cell to another Coordinates activities between cells

Gap junction connexons

A connexon is a cylinder with a central open pore One gap junction connexon is made up of six connexins The pore is a hydrophilic channel between two cytoplasms Plasma membranes come within 2-4nm of each other

Gap junctions

Put Them All Together

Cellular Junctions
Occluding jxns

zonula adherens

macula adherens