Cell

Type of cell:-
a) Prokaryotic cell
b) Eukaryotic cell
Difference between prokaryotic cell and
eukaryotic cell:-
Points Prokaryoti Eukaryoti
c c/ Human
1) Site Bacteria
2) Nuclear Envelope
3) Histone protein
bound to DNA
4) Organelles NON
NON+Memb.
Parts of a cell:- Protoplasm
Non-Nucleated organ in Human body:-
Multinucleated cell →
* Osteoclast
* Bone marrow cell.
1) Cytosol or byaloplasm: Fluid portion
sytoplasm →
2) Organelles
3) Inclusions
Vacuoplasm:- The space occupied
by membranous organelles.
 Cell Membrane
(Plasma Membrane)
Characteristics of cell membrane:-
* Outer limit of cell
* Semi permeable memb.
* Three superimposed layers
* Thickness → 7.5 to 10um.
Structures:-
Thickness → 7.5 to 10um
Organelles
* Structures within cytoplasm which
have definite structures and
Typesfunctions.
of organelles:-
a) Membranous b) Non-
Membranous
Inclusions:-
****** *****
Non living, transient components of
cytoplasm which have neither
metabolic activity nor are bounded
by membrane.
Examples:-
a) Stored Food: Liver cell ←*
Glycogen
Adipose ← * Lipid
 b) Secretory granules:- Protein (in
secretory epithelial cell)
c) Crystals : in testis.
d) Pigments → Melanin, Lipofusein etc.
→ Skin.
Functions:-
i) Metabolism during starvation.
ii) Digestion by S. granules
iii) Colouring of various organs.
Diff. between organelles and inclusions.
Points Organelle Inclusions
1) Inhibitant s
Permanent –
2) Metabolism – +
3) Membranes ± –
4) Life Living non-
Lysosome
1. Defi:
* Membranous organelles
* Concern with intra cellular digestion.
*
2. More in which cells:
Phagocytic cells.
3. Name the phagocytic
cells:-
4. Enzymes:
Hydrolytic enzymes (>40)
* acid Phosphatase
* Lipases
* Ribonuclease etc
5. Types of Lysosome:
a) Primary lysosome
b) Secondary Lysosome
c) Tertiary Lysosome (Residual body)
Primary Lysosome:
Which have not enterned into a digestive
event.
Primary lysosome → E/M.
but
in Macrophage and Neutrophil → L/M
Secondary Lysosome:
When phagocytosed material fuse with
primary lysosome then it is called - - - -
(Phagosome / Phagolysosomes / digestive
vacuoles)
Type of phagosome:
Heterophagosome : When primary
Lysosome fuse with materials taken
into cell from its external
environment.
Autophagosome: Organells or portion
of cytoplasma and initiate lysis. →
Tertiary / Residual body :
When indigestible compounds are
retained within the nacuoles – *
Example: Heart muscle →
Lipofuscin or
Neuron →
Liver cells → aging pigment
Functions of Lysosome:-
1. Digest the foreign particle or
unwanted cell organelles.
2. They destroy the wanted cell
organelles during required.
Why called suicidal bags ?
Before a cell dies due to lack of O2 or
other reasons, the Lysosomes destroy all
the organelles of the cytoplasm of so
they are called.
Origin :
From mature golgi complex.
Autophasy:
Heterophasy:
Disease related to lysosome:-
• Gausher’s disease → glycolipid → spleen
+Liver
• Hurler disease → dermatan →
F.B+sulphate O:B
Mitochondria
Defi:
Spherical or Filamentous membranous
organelles which play important role in
the production of energy required by
cells.
Location
In all cells except RBC and terminal
keratinocytes.
Position:
a) Ciliated cell → Apical end
b) Spermatozoa → Middle piece
c) Ion-transferring cells → Base
Structure:
a) Two mitochandrial Membrane:
- outer membrane
- inner membrane
b) Two spaces:
- Intermembrane space
- Intercistae space or matrix
also another space → Intracristal space
* Inner membrane is folded inside –
known as cristae.
Cristae :
Defi:-
Function:-
* ↑ Surface area of Mito.
* Contain enzymes and other
components of oxidative
phospholyration and electron
transport system.
Shape : * Shelf-like flat
* tubular
Contents – in steroid secreting
of Intercristal spacecell.
• Mitochondrial DNA
(Matrix):
• Mitochondrial RNA
• Ribosomes
• Enzymes for lipid and protein
synthesis
• Krebs cycle enzymes
Contents of Inner Membrane:
Cytochromes
Dehydrogenases
Flavoproteins
More Mitochondria:
• Cardiac muscle
• Kidney tubules
Functions of Mitochondria:
→ PowerHouse of cell (ATP)
→ Own DNA and Protein synthesis.
Difference betw. Mitochondrial DNA
and Nuclear DNA:
* MW → ↓
* Shape → Br. Fil
* Homo.
* Throughout cell synthesis
Mitochondria is maternal in origin
Mitochondrial cytopathy syndrome

→ Defective M. DNA → Degenerative

disease of CNS → called ---.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
Defi:
* An anastomosis network of
intercommunicating channels
* Membranous organelles
Why ? called →
Continuous Membrane system
Type:
a) sER b) rER
Rough Endoplasmic
reticulum
1. Why rough ?
2. Parts of Ribosome →
 3. Location → Protein synthesizing
cells
* Pancreatic acinar cells (d. Enz)
* Fibroblast (Collagen)
* Plasma cells (IG)
* Liver
4. Functions : Protein synthesis
5. Shape :
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
⇒ Why :
⇒ Location :
* a) Lipid synthesizing cell
* b) Steroid synthesizing cell
 a) Liver cell → Most in number
b) Cells of adrenal cortex, cells of
Gonad.
⇒ c) Skeletal muscle
Functions:-
* Synthesis Enzymes for lipid
metabolism.
* Responsible for steroid hormone
synthesis.
⇒ *Sarcoplasmic
Participate in Reticulum:
contractile process.
⇒ *Shape:
Detorificatin
⇒ Diff. between rER and sER.
* trait
1. Ribosome 2. Shape
3. Sites 4. Functions
Golgi Complex (G. body, apparatus)
Defi
Membranous organelles which
completes post-translational
modifications and packages and
places an address on products that
have been synthetized by the cell.
Location
* between the Nucleus and apical
plasma membrane.
* Near the nucleus
More in
* Neurons
* Glandular cells
Type of Golgi complex: 3 types
1. Cisternae : Most abvious, Flattened,
3-10 in number.
2. Vesides: Numerous, liesat periphery.
3. Vacuoles : Few, at one pole, at trans
face.
Faces of Golgi complex: two
a) Convex-face/ Immature face / cis
face/ cis Golgi.
→ Function: Receive the vesicles
from SER.
b) Concave face / Mature face / trans
face/ trans Golgi →
→ Function : Condense the products
for excretion.
Functions:-
1. It initiates packing, condensation,
storing, and specific distribution by
Exocytosis.
2. It is important in the glycosylation,
Sulfation, Phospholyration.
3. It forms Lysosyme enzymes.
4. It forms cell coat in case of non-
Trans-Golgi-network:-
secreting cell.
Mature face of Golgi apparatus and
asociated tubulo vesicular array →
called.
Function: Serves as sorting station for
shuting vecicles to the various location.
 Peroxisomes (Microbodies)
Defi:
→ Spherical, Membranous Organelles
which contain oxidative enzymes.
Location :
* All cells
Why ? ← * Liver and Kidney (More)
Enzymes peroxisome:
Catalase
Enzymes for B-oxidation.
L and D amino oxidases.
Functions:-
1. Responsible for lipid
metabolism (B-oxidation)

acetyl COA H2O2 → Detoxifies

(own metabolic need) various noxious
agents)

2. Detoxifies noxious material and kills

micraganism.
→ absent of it → Zellweger Syndrome:
(Muscle weak, CNS Disorganized)
Defi:
* Non-Membranous orga
* Electron-dense particles.
Type:
a) Free ribosome: in cytoplasm
Function: Synthesis protein for intra
cellular use.
b) Polysome / Poly ribosome / aHached
ribosome → at rER.
→ bounded by strand of mRNA.
Function:
Composition:
* RNA – (4 types)
* Protein (40 different type)
Peroxisomes (Microbodies):-
(Why called so → B/e → peroxide
formation)
Oxidize substrate → reduce O2 + H2O2
Defi :
→ Spherical, membranous organelles
which contain oxidative enzymes.
Location : * All cells
Why ? * Liver and Kidney
(More)
* Thyroid Follicular cell.
(B/C → Iodides → Oxidised
→
Enzymes peroxisome:
* Catalase
* Enzymes for B-oxidation
* L and D amino oxidases
Functions :
1. Responsible for lipid metabolism (B-
Oxidation)
↓
acetyl CoA H2O2 → Detoxifies
(own metabolic need) Various Noxious
agents
2. Detoxifies noxious material and kills
micr
 Centriole
Centrioles are paired, short, Rod-like
cytoplasmic non-membranous structure
which is responsible for cell division.
Number : One pair but in ‘s’ period of
interphase, each is duplicate.
Location : Usually close to nucleus.
Arrangement : Right angle with each
other.
Centrosome:
Diplosome:
Visible with L/M
Structures: * I set microtubules triplets
arranged as a pinwheel.
* Periphery,
* No central tubules
* But in cilia, Flagella, tails of
spermatozoa
→9+2
Cytocentre / cell center/
centrosphere:-
The centriole with Golgi complex – cell
centre b/c: They represent as an
organizing centre for microtubules
formation. (Microtubules organizing
 Ribosome
Defi: * Non-Membranous orga
* Electron-dense particles
Type : a) Free ribosome: in cytoplasm
Function : Synthesis protein for intra
cellular use
b) Polysome / poly ribosome / attached
ribosome → at rER.
→ bounded by strand of mRNA
Function :
Translation
↑
* DNA → RNA → Protein
Composition :
* RNA – (4 types)
* Protein (40 different type)
Parts of Ribosome : 60s
40s
Mechanism of Functions: Nucleolus→
Cyto.
Functions of synthesized protein:
→ Enzyme: secreted: Salivary Enz.
→ Stored → Lysosomal Enzyme
Identification of ribosome:
→ under L/M: Basophillic in H/E
under E/M: Electron-dense particles.
Functions:
* Responsible for formation of mitotic
spindle
which is essential for cell division.
* Responsible for formation of cilia,
Flagella and
cilia.
* Filaments of spermatozoa acts as cell
centre-
b/c.
Centrioles absent : * SK
So, No cell division → * Ca
The Cytoskeletors
Name the cytoplasmic cytoskeleton:
* Microtubules
* Micro Filaments
* Intermediate filaments
Functions of cytoskeletoss:
* Shaping of cells
* Movements of cell organelles and
intracytoplasmic vesicles
* Movements of Entire cells
 Microtubules
Defi: Tubular structures within
cytoplasmic
matrix. Which acts as cytoskeleton.
Location / Distribution:
* Cytoplasmic matrix
* Cilia
* Flagella
* Tail of spermatozoa
* Centriole
Diameter : * 24nm → 5nm→
* 14nm →
Arrangements of microtubules in
case:
→ Cilia:
→ Centriole:
Formation of Microtubules:
* α-tubulin → to form Microtubules
tubulin
subunits polymerize
* β tubulin
Microtubule Organizing centres:
* Cilia
* Basal bodies
* Centriole
Factors responsible for M.T.
Formation:
* Ca++
* MAPs (Microtubule associated protein)
Function:
* Development and maintenance of cell
shape.
* Participate in intracellular transport of
organelles and vesicle
Axoneme: 9 + 2 → in cilia
Each pair⇒ A→Complete, 13
heterodimers
 Micro Filaments
a) Name : Actin : thin → 5-7 nm D
Myosin:
b) Site : * In all cells
* Microvilli
Functions:
Participate in muscular contraction
Form a thin sheath just beneath cortex.
Which is responsible for cell activities →
Exocytosis, Endocytosis and cell
Migratory
activity.
Endocytosis : Phagocytosis:
Pinocytosis:
Exocytosis:
 Intermediate Filaments.
* Thickness intermediate in between with
(24–7)
* Name intermediate Filaments:
1. Cytokeratins: Epithelial tissue – as
tonofilaments.
2. Vimentin : Mesenchymal cells. →
Fibroblasts, Macrophage, Smooth MS-
V
3. Desmin: Smooth, Cardiac, Skeletal
muscle, Except vascular smooth
muscle.
Functions:
4.
1. Glial filaments:
Structural astrocytes
support
5.
2. Neuro Filaments:
Tensile Most
strength Neuron
in protection
from stresses and strains.
 Nucleus
Shape : Rounded or elongated.
Location : Usually centre. but in some
cells, acentric – Example:
Plasma cell, sympathetic ganglia.
Skeletal muscle.
Absent in : RBC.
Number : Single, but multiple nucleus in
→
a) Osteoclast
b) Some WBC
c) Skeletal muscle
Diameter : 5 – 10um.
Composition :
1. Nuclear envelope
2. Chromatin
3. Nucleolus
4. Nuclear matrix
5. Nuclear skeleton
Nuclear Envelope:
Double membranes →
* Layer : Outer: Ribosomes (rER)
Inner : Lined by Fibrous Lamina
(Protein structure)
* Perinuclear cisterna: 40 – 70nm
* Nuclear pore:
→ Size : 70-80nm
→ Number: 3000-4000
→ Functions: →RNA →
→ Shape → Funnel shaped circular
* Functions: Control the movement of
macromolecule between the nucleus
and the cytoplasm.

Nucleolus:
Defi: Non-membranous, intra nuclear
structure formed by filamentous
and granular material.
Shape : Spherical.
Composition: * rRNA
* Protein
Visible :
* During interphase → Basophilic with
H/E stain.
* Disappear → Prophase
* Reappear → during telophase
Number : Usually one, more than one in
some cells.
Formation:
By aggregation of satellite bodies of
13rd, 14th, 15th, 21st, 22
Components:
a) Pars amorpha : One to several pale
staining
regions containing Nuclear organizing
DNA.
b) Pars Fibrosa: Densed packed area
containing 5-10 nm ribonacleoprotein
Fibres
c) Pars granulosa: Containing 15-20nm
granules. (Mature Ribosome)
Large size nucleolus:
* In protein synthesizing cells.
Functions: Site for Ribosomal RNA
synthesis
Nuclear Sap:
* It is a fluid containing proteins which
fills up the interspaces between the
chromatin and the nuclear membrane.
* Functions: act as medium for transport
of rRNA and mRNA to the nuclear
pores.
Nuclear Matrix: → between nucleolus
and chromatin.
Components:
* Proteins
 Nucleoskeleton:
When the nucleic acid and other soluble
components of Matrix are removed, a
continuous fibrillar structure remains
→ called →
* Imp: Formation of a protein base to
which DNA loops are bound.
Chromosome:
Chromosome is deeply stained thread-like
structures within the nucleus of each animal
cell.
Neucleosome: A spherical
Composition : body formed by aggregation
DNA of 4-histone proteins.
RNA
Protein :
Histone protein –Arginine, Lysine
Non-Histone protein –
* Some are Enzymes – DNA

polymerase, RNA polymerase.

* Some disengage the histone

protein
and depress the gene activity.
Number:
Haploid : 23 → Mature sex cell.
Diploid : 46 → * Immature sex cell
* Somatic cell.
Arrangement of chromosome:
Pair (23 pair)
1 Pair → Gonosome/sex chromosome
22 Pair → Autosome
Autosome:
Functions : Regulate the body
Sex characteristics.
chromosome :
Functions: Regulate primarily the sex
characters.
Homologous
Chromosome
Which are :
 Same length
 Same centromeric position
 Same distribution of genes
 Same banding pattern
XX → Homologous in length
(Female)
XY → ‘X’-longer, ‘Y’-shorter.
Type of chromosome:
According to position of centromere-
a) Metacentric : Centromere is middle
position.
Example: 1, 2, 3, 19, 20 pair
Telocentric :
Centromere is at the end of chromosome

Acrocentric :
Centromere is situated close to the end.
Example : 13th, 14th, 15th, 21th, 22 pair

chromosome.
Submetacentric :
Centromere is located at some distance
from the end, but not median.
Example : 4th – 12th, 16th – 18th.
  Human chromosomes either
metacentric, submetacentric or
acrocentric.
 Centromere / Kinetocore :
Primary constriction where
achromatic spindle is a
attached during cell
division.
 Satellite body: The segment
of chromatids distal to
2ndary constriction
 Telomere : The ends of the
chromatid
 Chromatid : Each dividing
part of a chromosome
during prophase part of cell
 When chromosome is visible under
microscope ?
Why ?
Only during cell divisions.
Why → During cell division, Each chromosome
became highly coiled along its whole
length,
 Whenbecomes shorter,
Chromosome andvisible
is not thicker.
under
microscope ?
 Why ?

During resting stage (Interphase)

because:
Each chromosome becomes uncoiled into
long thin thread which is beyond the
resolution of the light microscope.
Chromatin :
Chromosomal material unidentifiable as
separate chromosome under microscope
during interphase is called chromatin.

 Type of chromatin
a) Euchromatin : Uncoiled portion of
chromosome
is called euchromatin. It is
genetically
active.
b) Heterochromatin : Coiled portion of
chromosome is called Heterochromatin.
It is
genetically inactive.
c) Sex chromatin / Barr
body :
Definition:
It is the heterochromatin, plano-convex body
beneath the nuclear membrane. which
present in female cell.

Mechanism: In female, one ‘X’

chromosome is highly uncoiled and
genetically active which takespart at
the cell division. but other ‘X’
chromosome is highly coiled and
genetically inactive. This inactive x
chromosome deposit beneath the
nuclear membrane as Barr body/ Sex-
chromatin
Number :
Total number of minus 1 = Barr
body usually a normal female
carries a Barr body (xx – x = 1).

But in triple xxx syndrome, two

Barr body (xxx – x = 2) present
In turner’s syndrome, no Barr
body present + (xo – x = 0)
In klinefelter’s syndrome of male
(xxy) has one Barr body present.
Location :
 Nuclei
of WBC. (Drum-stick
appearance) at Buccal Mucous
Membrane
 Importance: Helps in the
nuclear sexing of the tissues.

 Fate : Disappear during cell

division.
Disjunction:-
It is the type of splitting of
centromere where each daughter
cell contains equal number of
chromosome.
Non-Disjunction:-
After the splitting of the
centrosomes, one or more
chromosome fail to migrate
properly due to abnormal function
of the spindle apparatus. This
phenomenon is called non-
Trisomy:-
When both members of a particular
pair go to one daughter cell which
receives extrachromosome due to
abnormal function of achromatic
spindle.
Monosomy:-
When one daughter cell contain
only one chromosome during
splitting of centromere-is called
monosomy.
Anaphase lag:-
After the splitting of the centromere one
member of the newly formed chromosome
separates as usual forming normal
chromosome complement in one daughter,
whereas the other member fails to reach the
opposite pole of the spindle. This phenomenon
is called Anaphase lag.
At which phase of cell division, chromosomal
Hazard take place ? → Anaphase.
 Cell Membrane
Another Name : * Plasma membrane
* Plasmalemma
Thickness : 7.5-10nm
Composition : Phospholipid,
Cholesterol,
Protein, Carbohydrate
Structure : a) Unit membrane: 3 layers.
Lipid
bilayer with protein.
(Trilaminar structure)
A. * Lipid Bilayer: Consists of:-
a) Phospholipid + Cholesterol
b) Phospholipid: * 2 Long chain
* Head end → hydrophilic end and
tail,
non-polar end-1 hydrophobic end.
Cholesterol: breaks up the close
packing of the phospholipid long
B. chain
Protein and
: maintain feuidty of cell
memb.
a) Integral protein: Incorporated
within the Lipid Bilayer.
b) Peripheral protein: Loosely
associated with membrane
Integral protein : two types
a) Transmembrane protein: pass
from one side to another side.
→ One pass tran. M. Protein
→ Multipass tran. M. Protein
b) Globular protein: Partially
embedded in lipid bilayer and protrude
from either outer or inner surface.
C. Carbohydrate / Glycocalyx:
at outer surface
as glycoprotein: bind with protein
as Glycolipid : bind with Lipid
Imp: Participates for cell recognition,
adhesion, binding to other cell and to
extracellular molecule.
* Processes for transfering material:
a) Endocytosis: Pinocytosis
Phagocytosis
b) Exocytosis : Protein
* Functions of cell membrane:
* Maintain the shape of the cell
* Selective Barrier
* Keep constant intercellular milieu
*
*
Fluid Mosaic Model : Membrane
proteins are distributed within lipid
bilayer like mosaic disposition-called
Functions of membrane proteins:
1. Pumps: It acts as pump to transports
ions→
Na+pump.
2. Channels: * Gap junctions formed by
it
* acts as channels for passage of ion
3. Carrier proteins: Transport molecule
which are too large for diffusion
4. Receptors: for hormone.
5. Enzymic activity
* Forms of lipid in cell memb: ***