F5 Chapter 1 Transport Part 1

CHAPTER 1
Transport
The Importance of Having a Transport System in Some Multicellular Organisms

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exchange of substances (nutrients, waste products, and respiratory gases) with the environment - survive and grow. exchange - diffusion.
exchange of substances occurs rapidly if Surface area volume Large Small
Surface area : volume

distance Concentration gradient
Large
Near high
Total surface area to volume ratio
1.1 The Importance of Having a Transport System in Some Multicellular Organisms
Unicellular organisms (Amoeba & Paramecium) diffusion - volume of the body is very small -- the total surface area/volume ratio is very high.
Large multicellular organisms, diffusion alone cannot ensure a constant supply of oxygen and nutrients to the cells because 1. the total surface area/volume ratio - small 2. the distance between the source of substances and the cells of the organisms is too far from the environment.
The Circulatory system

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delivers
nutrients and oxygen to cells carries waste products away from the cell protects the body from infections
The Circulatory system

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3 major components:

Blood - medium of transport Heart - muscular pump Blood vessels - arteries, capillaries and veins - connected to the heart - deliver blood
The Circulatory System
Blood and Haemolymph

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Blood - medium of transport Invertebrates (e.g. insects) - medium of transport haemolymph- blood-like nutritive fluid, fills the entire body cavity (haemocoel) & surrounds all cells.

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The functions of blood:Transportation Regulation Protection

Blood transports
lungs
O2
cells of the whole body lungs. hormones and antibodies throughout the
cells
CO2
nutrients,
body
waste
products away from the cells to the organs of the excretory system.

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Blood regulates
pH of body fluids body temperature water content of cells
Blood protects us
from excessive blood loss in an injury - mechanism of blood clotting - helps to heal wounds. from diseases & helps to fight against infections, eg. - white blood cells carry out phagocytosis and produce antibodies to destroy pathogens which enter the body.

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The functions on haemolymph transports water, inorganic salts and organic compounds throughout the haemocoel. haemolymph does not transport respiratory gases. In insects, respiratory gases are transported via the tracheal system.
The composition of human blood

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Plasma main transport medium The constituents and its functions (next page)
Cellular components The cellular components of blood consist of red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leucocytes) and platelets.
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Plasma
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Constituents
Water (makes up about 90% of the plasma)
Major functions
A solvent to transport dissolved substances such as glucose and amino acids.
Ions-sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, chloride and bicarbonate ions

Plasma proteins Albumin
Maintain the osmotic balance and the pH of the blood at 7.4.

Collectively, the plasma proteins maintain the osmotic balance between the blood and the interstitial fluid. They also act as buffers against any pH changes and provide a defence against injuries and diseases. Clotting factor that helps blood clotting when blood vessels are cut. Antibodies that help in the bodys defence. Control physiological activities in the body. Nutrients are important for the production of energy, growth and the maintenance of health. Oxygen is needed during cellular respiration.
Fibrinogen Immunoglobulins Hormones Dissolved substances Nutrients (for example, glucose and vitamins), waste products such as urea, and respiratory gases (oxygen and carbon

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Erythrocytes (red blood cells)

Shape - biconcave disc no nucleus. small, ~ 7.5 m diameter. large surface area to volume ratio - rapid diffusion of oxygen elastic membrane - squeeze easily into the tiniest blood capillaries. A erythrocyte contains ~250 million molecules of haemoglobin. Haemoglobin - oxygen-carrying protein pigment - red colour. Haemoglobin contains a haem group - contains an iron

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Erythrocytes (red blood cells) Lifespan ~120 days, after which it is destroyed in the liver and spleen.
continuously
manufactured in the bone marrow of long bones, the ribs, the skull and the vertebrae. As erythrocytes mature, they lose their nuclei and mitochondria, giving them the distinctive biconcave-disc shape.

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Platelets (Thrombocytes) fragments of large cells (megakaryocytes) found in the bone marrow. Made in bone marrow, last for 6-7 days. Colorless, irregular shape, without nuclues. Important in blood clotting and in repairing damaged tissues. Helps to maintain the integrity of blood vessel wall.

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Leucocytes (white blood cells)
Colourless, have nuclei and mitochondria, irregular shape. less than 1% of the volume of blood. larger than red blood cells. made by the stem cells in the bone marrow. Function - Fight infections. When pathogens invade the body, the number of leucocytes . can squeeze through the wall of capillaries

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Leucocytes
Granulocyt es
Agranulocytes
Basophils
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Monocytes
Lymphocyt es
Human blood vessels

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3 types of human blood vessels: Arteries Veins Capillaries
thinner
Withstand high pressure of blood flowing e.g-aorta
Human blood vessels

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pulmonary artery the only artery that carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs. pulmonary vein is the only vein that carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart. Arterioles are small arteries that branch into a network of capillaries which reach into the tissues. Capillaries are tiny, thin-walled blood vessels. Respiratory gases, nutrients, waste products, and hormones are exchanged by diffusion between the blood and the interstitial fluid surrounding the cells across the thin walls of the capillaries.
Human blood vessels

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Human blood vessels

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Arteries
Thick, muscular, elastic
Capillaries
One-cell thick, no muscle or elastic tissue
Veins
Thin, less muscular, less elastic
Wall
Lumen
Valve
Small
No valve
Very small
No valve
Large
Have valves which maintain the one-way flow of blood Low From all parts of the body to the heart (blood returns to the heart) Deoxygenated blood except the pulmonary vein Allow blood from the tissues to return to the heart
Blood pressure Direction of blood flow
High From the heart to the organs (away from the heart) Oxygenated blood except the pulmonary artery
Very low From arteries to veins
Blood content
Oxygenated blood at the arteriole ends and deoxygenated blood at the venule ends. Allow rapid gaseous exchange between the blood and the body cells by diffusion
Function
To transport blood quickly at high pressure from the heart to the tissues
Heart
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Semilunar valve
Heart
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The structure and function of the human heart
The heart is a cone-shaped, muscular organ about the size of a clenched fist.
The heart pumps the blood which
carries vital materials required by the body removes waste products that the body does not need
four muscular chambers capable of strong contractions

2 upper chambers - atria (singular, atrium) 2 lower chambers - ventricles. The atria receive blood, ventricles pump blood out of the
Human heart
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The heart contracts and relaxes in a rhythmic cycle. -contracts - pumps blood. -relaxes - chambers are filled with blood The atria have relatively thin walls and function as collection chambers. The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the vena cava while the left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins.
Human heart
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atria contract - blood pumped into the ventricles. The ventricles have thicker walls and stronger contractions than the atria.
The muscular wall of the left ventricle is thicker than the wall of the right ventricle - left ventricle pump blood to all parts of the body The heart has valves that allow blood to flow in one direction only. The valve between the right atrium and the right ventricle is the tricuspid valve while the valve between the left atrium and the left ventricle is called the bicuspid valve.
Human heart
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Human heart
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The
powerful contractions of the ventricles force these valves to close, preventing blood from flowing back into the atria. semi-lunar valves are located at the exits, where the pulmonary artery and aorta leave the heart. valves prevent blood from flowing back into the ventricles when the ventricles relax.
The
These
Human heart
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7) Oxygenated blood is pumped through the aorta to the rest of the body. 4) Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters the left atrium through the pulmonary veins.
1) Deoxygenated blood from the rest of the body enters the right atrium via the vena cava.
2) As blood fills the right atrium, the atrium contracts and push the blood through the bicuspid valve. 3) Deoxygenated blood is pumped through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs.
5) The left atrium contracts and push the blood through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle.
6) When the right ventricle contracts, the semi-lunar valves are forced open and blood is pushed into the pulmonary arteries and the aorta.
Human heart
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1.
Deoxygenated blood from the rest of the body enters the right atrium via the vena cava.
2.
Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters the left atrium through the pulmonary veins.
As blood fills the atria, the atria contract and push the blood through the bicuspid
3.
Human heart
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4.
When the ventricles contract, the semilunar valves are forced open and blood is pushed into the pulmonary arteries and the aorta.
Deoxygenated blood is pumped through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs. Oxygenated blood is pumped through the aorta to the rest of the body.
5.
6.
The circulation of blood in humans

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The pumping of the heart Each time the heart contracts, it acts as a pump which sends blood throughout the body. The heart is made up of a strong muscle, called the cardiac muscle which are interconnected- allows electrical impulses to spread rapidly & stimulates the cardiac muscle cells to contract in a coordinated movement.

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The cardiac muscle is myogenic contracts and relaxes without the need to receive stimulation by nerve impulses to make it contract. The contractions of the heart are initiated and coordinated by a pacemaker - cluster of specialised heart muscle cells that set the rate of contraction - located in the wall of the right atrium.
The
pacemaker generates electrical impulses which spread rapidly over the walls of both atria, causing the atria to contract rhythmically.

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The hearts primary pacemaker is the sinoatrial (SA) node - keeps the heartbeats regular.
From the SA node, the impulses are relayed to the atrioventricular (AV) node, located at the bottom of the right atrium.

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The AV node sends impulses to the ventricles to contract.
From the AV node, specialised muscle fibres called bundle of His fibres, bundle branches and Purkinje fibres send the impulsesapex of the heart and throughout the walls of the ventricles.
This causes the ventricles to contract and pump blood out to the lungs and other parts of the body.

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Contractions of the skeletal muscles around veins
Blood is sent through the circulatory system with the help of the contractions of the skeletal muscles around the veins.
When skeletal muscles contract, the veins constrict and blood is pushed along through the veins. The veins have one-way valves that allow blood to flow in the direction towards
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The regulatory mechanism of blood pressure
When blood flows along a vessel, it exerts pressure against the walls of the blood vessel blood pressure - force that pumps blood along the arteries and the capillaries.
Blood
pressure is greater in arteries than in
veins.
Blood
flows from areas of high pressure to areas of lower pressure.
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During the contraction of the ventricles (systole stage), blood pressure is the highest in the aorta and large arteries. At rest, a healthy adult = blood pressure of 120/80 mm Hg. The 1st number = systolic pressure = highest recorded pressure in an artery when the ventricles contract. The 2nd number = diastolic pressure = lowest recorded pressure during the relaxation phase of the heartbeats (the diastole stage).
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Blood pressure is regulated by a negative feedback mechanism. Baroreceptors or pressure receptors located in the arch of the aorta and carotid arteries (arteries in the neck that supply blood to the brain) detect the pressure of the blood flowing through them. These receptors send nerve impulses continuously to the cardiovascular centre in the medulla oblongata to help regulate the blood pressure.

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The circulatory system in insects, fish, amphibians, and human

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The circulatory system of large multicellular organisms can be divided into two types:
the
open circulatory system and the closed circulatory system.
The open circulatory system (insects) An open circulatory system consists of

one
or more hearts, a network of vessels, and a large open space within the body (haemocoel)
The circulatory system in insects

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The open circulatory system (insects)
One or more hearts pump the haemolymph through the vessels and into the haemocoel which contains the soft internal organs and is filled with haemolymph - chemical exchange between the haemolymph and the body cells takes place. hearts contract - haemolymph flows from the hearts haemocoel hearts relax - haemolymph is drawn through pores called ostia (singular, ostium) back into the hearts.

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The ostia are equipped with valves that close when the hearts contract.

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The circulatory system in insects, fish, amphibians

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The closed circulatory system All vertebrates, including humans, and invertebrates such as molluscs (squids) and annelids (earthworms) have a closed circulatory system - blood flows within the heart and vessels.
One or more hearts pump blood into large vessels that branch into smaller vessels in the organs
Chemical exchange takes place between the blood and the interstitial fluid, and between the interstitial fluid and the body cells.
Interstitial Fluid
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Solution that bathes and surrounds the cells of multicellular animals.
The circulatory system in fish

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A fish has a heart with two main chambers, 1 atrium and 1 ventricle.
Blood leaving the ventricle goes first to the gill capillaries - gaseous exchange takes place.
The gill capillaries converge into a vessel that carries the oxygenated blood to the body capillaries or systemic capillaries.

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In the systemic capillaries, oxygen diffuses into the tissues while carbon dioxide diffuses out of the tissues and into the capillaries.
The deoxygenated blood then returns to the atrium of the heart through the veins. The circulatory system of fish has only one circuit: the blood goes to the gill capillaries and then the systemic capillaries, it is called a single circulatory system.

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The circulatory system in amphibians

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The circulatory system in amphibians Frogs and other amphibians have a threechambered heart consisting of two atria and one ventricle.
Deoxygenated blood from the body is carried into the right atrium while oxygenated blood from the lungs is sent to the left atrium.
Blood from both atria then enters a single

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The circulatory system in amphibians Although there is some mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the ventricle, most of the oxygenated blood remains in the left portion of the ventricle while deoxygenated blood tends to remain in the right portion of the ventricle.
The ventricle then pumps blood through the pulmocutaneous circulation and the systemic circulation.
The pulmocutaneous circulation delivers the deoxygenated blood to the organs involved in gaseous exchange, that is, the lungs and skin.

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The oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium of the heart, and most of it is then pumped into the systemic circulation. The systemic circulation carries the oxygenated blood to the body tissues and returns the deoxygenated blood to the right atrium through the veins. The blood flows in two separate circuits, that is, the pulmocutaneous circulation and the systemic circulation, the system is known as a double circulatory system.

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The circulatory system in humans

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The circulatory system in humans Humans have a four-chambered heart: 2 atria and 2 completely separated ventricles 4 chambers ensure an efficient and rapid delivery of highly oxygenated blood to the organs of the body.
Deoxygenated blood and oxygenated blood do not mix.

In the pulmonary circulation, deoxygenated blood in the right ventricle is pumped into the pulmonary arteries - carry the blood to the lungs passes through the blood capillaries - removal of CO2 and the intake of O2 from the air into the alveoli.
The circulatory system in and humans

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In the systemic circulation, blood is carried from the heart other parts of the body except the lungs. The oxygenated blood from the lungs left atrium left ventricle. The oxygenated blood is then pumped into the systemic capillaries via the aorta.
Since there are two separate circulations: the systemic and the pulmonary circulations, humans have a double circulatory system - blood flows through the heart twice - ensures that oxygenated blood is constantly delivered to the cells.

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The circulatory system in insects, fish amphibians and humans

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Organisms Type of circulatory system Separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
Insects Open circulatory system -
Fish Closed circulatory system Single -
Amphibians Closed circulatory system Double Incomplete (there is some mixing of the oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the ventricle)
Humans Closed circulatory system Double Complete (there is no mixing of the oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in the ventricle)
Number of (A single blood chambers in the vessel forms heart the hearts)
Two
Three
Four
The Mechanism of Blood clotting

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Blood clotting - body mechanism to stop or minimize blood loss

prevent serious blood loss maintain blood pressure maintain the circulation of blood prevent the entry of microorganisms and foreign substances
The blood clotting mechanism - complex series of biochemical reactions - prevent excessive bleeding The chain reactions transform fibrinogen to fibrin, a self-sealing material to plug leaks.
Blood clotting mechanism

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Normal cond., blood clotting is controlled by heparin found in the plasma.
Upon injury, damaged blood vessels, tissues or blood platelets release thromboplastin (throbokinase).
In the presence of calcium ions and vit.K, throbokinase converts the prothrombin into thrombin.

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Thrombin catalyses the conversion of soluble protein fibrinogen insoluble fibrin
Fibrin forms a mesh of fibres over the wound, trapping RBC and seals the wound.
The trapped cells dried and harden, forming a protective scab which closes the wound and stops further blood loss and prevent entry of foreign particles.

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The Mechanism of Blood Clotting
Problem related to blood clotting

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A defect at any step in the clotting process can lead to impaired blood clotting. Problems related to blood clotting include haemophilia and thrombosis.
Haemophilia

Hereditary disease - lacks certain clotting factors may die as a result of excessive bleeding from even minor cuts - blood dotting cannot take place. may also experience spontaneous internal bleeding, even though they have not been injured.

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Thrombosis
Clot formation inside an unbroken blood vessel Clot = a thrombus may be dislodged and moves in the bloodstream. A blood clot moving in a bloodstream = embolus. The embolus moves along until it is unable to pass through a narrow artery and becomes lodged - the blood flow obstructed.

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If a clot forms in a coronary artery (the artery that supplies blood to the heart), the cardiac muscle tissues below the obstruction no longer receive oxygenated blood and may die. This can lead to a heart attack. If a dot blocks blood flow to the brain, a stroke may result.

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CHAPTER 1

The Importance of Having a Transport System in Some Multicellular Organisms

Surface area : volume

Total surface area to volume ratio

1.1 The Importance of Having a Transport System in Some Multicellular Organisms

The Circulatory system

The Circulatory system

The Circulatory System

Blood and Haemolymph

Blood and Haemolymph

The Circulatory System

The functions of blood:Transportation Regulation Protection

Blood and Haemolymph

The Circulatory System

Blood and Haemolymph

The Circulatory System

The composition of human blood

The composition of human blood

The composition of human blood

Ions-sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, chloride and bicarbonate ions

Maintain the osmotic balance and the pH of the blood at 7.4.

The Circulatory System

The composition of human blood

Erythrocytes (red blood cells)

The composition of human blood

The Circulatory System

The Circulatory System

The composition of human blood

The Circulatory System

The composition of human blood

Leucocytes (white blood cells)

The composition of human blood

The Circulatory System

The composition of human blood

The Circulatory System

Human blood vessels

3 types of human blood vessels: Arteries Veins Capillaries

Withstand high pressure of blood flowing e.g-aorta

The Circulatory System

Human blood vessels

Human blood vessels

The Circulatory System

The Circulatory System

Human blood vessels

Blood pressure Direction of blood flow

Very low From arteries to veins

The Circulatory System

The structure and function of the human heart

four muscular chambers capable of strong contractions

The Circulatory System

The Circulatory System

The Circulatory System

The Circulatory System

The Circulatory System

The Circulatory System

The circulation of blood in humans

The Circulatory System

The circulation of blood in humans

The circulation of blood in humans

The Circulatory System

The Circulatory System

The circulation of blood in humans

The AV node sends impulses to the ventricles to contract.