Coordination & Responses

Chapter 3 Form 5

Coordination & Response

Nervous system
Central nervous system (CNS)

Plant hormone
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Auxins Ethylene

Endocrine system

Homeostasis

Osomotic pressure
Blood sugar level Body temperature

Neurones Spinal cord Brain Cranial nerves Spinal nerves

Endocrine glands Hormones

3.1 Coordination & Response

Org experiences changes internal & external env Sensitivity = ability of living org to detect these changes & respond to them accordingly Stimuli = changes which cause responses in the body 2 types of stimuli
Internal stimuli Eg: changes in blood osmotic pressure, blood glucose level, CO2 & O2 levels External stimuli Eg: changes in light intensity, sound, temperature, pressure & touch.

3.1 Coordination & Response

Mammals detect stimuli through highly specialised cells receptors Effectors carry out the responses to stimuli Receptors + effectors bring out a suitable response to the stimuli Coordination
stimuli detected and eventually result in an appropriate response ensure all the activities of an org function efficiently

3.1 Coordination & Response

Roles of coordination & response are carried out by 2 different coordinating system:
Nervous system Endocrine system

2 systems complement each other in coordination & response Components of nervous system:
Sensory receptors Integrating centre Effector

Sensory receptor stimulated, nerve impulses generated

3.1 Coordination & Response

Afferent pathway transmission of nerve impulses from sensory receptors afferent neurones integrating centre Integrating centre receives information, integrates and initiates a response Efferent pathway transmits nerve impulses from integrating centre efferent nerves effectors

3.1 Coordination & Response

Component Description Sensory receptor Example Sensory receptors are specialised nerve ending which detect changes in the external & internal env Usually only 1 type of receptor detects only 1 type of stimulus Sensory receptor Light-sensitive cells in detect external env retina changes in specific Temp & touch receptors in sensory organs (Eg: the skin eyes, nose, tongue, Vibration sensitive cells in skin) ears Cells sensitivity to chemicals in the nose & on the tongue

3.1 Coordination & Response

Component Description Sensory receptor Sensory receptor detect internal env changes in special internal organ Example Cells sensitive to the level of CO2 in the blood, and blood osmotic pressure; pancreatic cells detect the blood glucose level The central nervous system (the brain & the spinal cord)

Integrating centre

Effectors

Integration happens when information from the stimulated receptor is interpreted to bring about appropriate to responses to the stimuli carry out the responses Muscle cells & glands to stimuli Light & sound stimuli give rise to sight & hearing

3.1 Coordination & Response

Transmission 3 nerve impulses travel along the afferent neurones to the integrating centre

1 Stimuli External env

2 Detected by sensory receptor in the external sensory organs converted into nerve impulses

Effector initiates suitable responses

6

Transmission nerve impulses sent through efferent neurones to the effector

Integrating centre (CNS) brain & spinal cord nerve impulses interpreted & a response is initiated

3.1 Coordination & Response

Transmission 3 nerve impulses travel along the afferent neurones to the integrating centre

Stimuli internal env

Detected by sensory receptor in the internal organs converted into nerve impulses
5

Effector 6 initiates suitable responses

Transmission nerve impulses sent through efferent neurones to the effector

Integrating centre (CNS) brain & spinal cord nerve impulses interpreted & a response is initiated

3.2 The role of human nervous system

Organisation of the nervous system consists of a giant network of nerve cells/neurones, & nerve tissue Pass information between the sensory receptors, the organ & effectors Central nervous system (CNS) & peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Human nervous system

Central nervous system Brain Spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

Carnial nerve Spinal nerve

3.2 The role of human nervous system

PNS link the receptors & effectors to the CNS Human CNS 12 pairs of cranial nerves & 31 pairs of spinal nerves Cranial nerve send nerve impulses to & from the brain Spianal nerve send nerve impulses to & from the spinal cord

3.2 The role of human nervous system

Function of nervous system: sensory, integrative & motor Sensory receptors detect stimuli from both internal & external env & initiate nerve impulses that carry information to the CNS CNS process & integrates the info, analysing & storing, makes decisions to initiate suitable responses Motor commands from the CNS are transmitted to the effectors, the muscles/glands, to carry out the response
Sensory output Sensory receptor Integration
Motor output

Effector

The brain & its main functions *

Human brain consist of the cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla oblongata, pituitary gland, thalamus & hypothalamus
Hypothalamus Function homeostatic regulation Major coordination centre for regulation sleep, hunger, thirst, body temperature, water balance & blood pressure Controls the release of several hormones from the pituitary gland important link between the nervous & endocrine system

The brain & its main functions *

Cerebrum Largest & most complex part of the brain Centre to receives sensory input & carries out integrative functions Outer region of the cerebrum cerebral cortex with many folds to increase the surface area Cerebral cortex controls all voluntary muscle movement sensory perception aware of what he sees, hears, smells, tastes or touches Its also responsible for many mental abilities, eg: learning, memorising, reasoning, language skills, speech, mathematical skills, imagination, artistic talent & personal trains

The brain & its main functions *

Thalamus Function sorting the incoming & outgoing information in the cerebral cortex Integrates the information from the sensory receptors to the cerebrum by increasing certain signal & blocking other

Cerebellum Located beneath the cerebrum & above the medulla oblongata Function coordinating centre for body movement Controls & coordinates muscles to produce coordinated movement

The brain & its main functions *

Pituitary gland Secretes hormones influence other glands & body functions

Medulla oblongata* Controls involuntary actions & regulates the internal body process that do not require conscious effort automatic functions, eg: heartbeat, breathing & vasoconstriction The reflex centre for vomiting, coughing, sneezing, hiccupping and swallowing

Spinal cord & its main functions *

Spinal cord located within the vertebral column

Spinal cord & its main functions *

Spinal cord is surrounded by cerebrospinal fluid shock absorber & nutrient provider Consist of white matter & grey matter
In cross section, grey matter looks like a butterfly/letter H consists mainly cell bodies of neurones surrounded by white matter White matter comprises myelin-coated axons of neurones that extend the whole length of spinal cord

Spinal cord & its main functions *

Spinal cord Process certain types of sensory information & send out responses via the efferent neurones Contains neurones that convey signals to & from the brain Controls reflex action

Spinal cord & its main functions *

1. Cell bodies of different neurones are clustered in the dorsal root ganglion 2. Dorsal root contains the axons of afferent neurones which conduct nerve impulses from sensory receptors to the spinal cord 3. Ventral root contains the axons of the efferent neurones which conduct nerve impulses away from the spinal cord to the effectors 4. Spinal nerve contain afferent & efferent neurones
2

1 Afferent neurones

Efferent neurones 4

The neurones
Neurones system is made up of millions of nerve cells neurones Neurones transmit nerve impulses to other nerve cells, glands or muscles 3 types of neurones*
Afferent neurones Efferent neurones Interneurones

The neurones
Afferent (sensory) neurones Send nerve impulses from receptor cells to the brain and spinal cord
nucleus

Axon terminal

Direction of nerve impulses

The neurones
Efferent (motor) neurones Send nerve impulses from the brain or spianl cord to the effectors, that is, the muscles or endocrine glands
nucleus Direction of nerve impulses

Synaptic terminal & axon ternimal

The neurones
Interneurones Transmit nerve impulses between the various parts of the brain and spinal cord Transmit nerve impulses between the afferent neurones & efferent neurones

Axon terminal

The neurones
There are 4 distinct parts of a typical neurones 1. Dendrites 2. Cell body 3. Axon 4. Synaptic terminals (synaptic knobs)

Synaptic terminal

The neurones
Dentrites Fibres, receive info/signal from other neurones or from the external env & conduct then towards the cell body Dendrites of afferent neurones produce signals in response to specific stimuli from the external env, eg: pressure, light, heat

Synaptic terminal

The neurones
Cell body Has a nucleus and other organelles Electrical signal /nerve impulses then travel along the dendrites & converge on the cell body of the neurone Integrates the signals & coordinates the metabolic activity

Synaptic terminal

The neurones
Axon Long, thin fibre Extends outwards from the cell body Conducts the nerve impulses away from the cell body Usually bundled together into nerves

Synaptic terminal

The neurones
Myelin sheath Some axons are insulated by myelin sheath protects & insulates the axons, helps to speed up the transmission of the nerve impulses As nerve impulses travel along axon, it jump from one node of Ranvier to the next. This speeds up the transmission of nerve impulses.

Synaptic terminal

The neurones
Synaptic terminals (synaptic knobs) Nerve impulses eventually reach the synaptic terminals located far end of each axon Swelling at the branched ends of the axon Transmit signals to the muscle cells, gland cells or the dendrites of another neurones

Synaptic terminal

The neurones
Transmission information along the neurone Through electrical signals known as nerve impulses Impulse a wave of electrical charges that travel along the axon or dendrites of a neurone Neurone will not transmit an impulse unless the stimulation is strong enough Once the magnitude or size of the stimulation reaches a sufficient level, a full-sized impulse is generated to travel the entire length of the axon.
Direction of nerve impulses

Synaptic terminal

Difference between the afferent neurones and efferent neurones

Afferent neurones

Differences Axon Dendron Direction of nerve impulses

Efferent neurones

Transmission pathway of information

3. Nerve impulses pass from afferent neurones interneurones in the brain 2. The receptors trigger nerve impulses in the afferent neurones 1. Receptors in the ear pick up the ringing of doorbell 4. Brain interprets the nerve impulses from many interneurones that doorbell is ringing. The brain decides that the door should be opened.
5

5. Nerves impulses transmitted from interneurones efferent neurones muscles response & open the door

Transmission of information across synapses

Synaptic cleft = narrow space beyond the synaptic terminal - separates the synaptic terminal from dendrite of a receiving neurones, a muscle cell or a gland cells Synapse the site where 2 neurones, or a neurone & an effector cell communicate

Transmission of information across synapses Electrical signals carrying a message must be transmitted across the synaptic cleft to an adjacent cell presynaptic
a) Synaptic cleft = space between the presynaptic & postsynaptic membrane b) Transmission of nerve impulses = chemical process c) Process requires the actions of neurotransmitters d) Neurotransmitters are stored in small synaptic vesicles clustered at the tip of a synaptic terminal
d a

postsynaptic

Transmission of information across synapses Transmission of information across the synapse

Conversion of electrical signals chemical signals in the form of neurotransmitters Reconversion of chemical signals into electrical signal at the postsynaptic membrane Active process = require energy Synaptic terminal contain abundant mitochondria to generate energy

After neurotransmitter relayed its message,

Rapidly broken down by enzyme Taken up again by the synaptic terminal and recycled

This is to ensure that the effect of a neurotransmitter is brief and precise

Transmission of information across synapses

1. Electrical impulses reaches the presynaptic membrane, it triggers the synaptic vesicles to release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft 2. The neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft & bind to specific proteins / receptors which are attached to the postsynaptic membrane 3. The binding of the neurotransmitters to the receptors leads to the generation of a new electrical signal

Direction of transmission of nerve impulses

Transmission of information across synapses Eg of neurotransmitter: acetylcholine, noradrenaline, serotonin & dopamine Functions of synapse:
Controlling & integrating the nerve impulses transmitted by the stimulated receptors Facilitating the transmission of nerve impulses in ONE direction synaptic vesicles are only present in the synaptic terminals (only the presynaptic membrane can discharge neurotranmitters) receptors are only present in the postsynaptic membrane (only the postsynaptic membrane can receive a chemical signal)

Voluntary action & involuntary action

Main function of Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Transmits signals to the central nervous system (CNS) for processing Transmits responses from CNS to rest of the body voluntary / involuntary

Cerebrum responsible for all voluntary action Medulla oblongata controls involuntary actions

Voluntary actions of the skeletal muscles

Eg: walking, talking Cerebral cortex of the cerebrum govern voluntary control of the skeletal muscles Information reaches the cerebral cortex results in a perception of the external env
Stimulus Receptor

Response

Effector

Involuntary actions of the skeletal muscles: reflex

Immediate action do not require conscious effort Eg: finger touches a hot stove finger pull away immediately Responses to stimuli are involuntary = reflex action rapid, automatic or involuntary to stimuli Reflex arc pathway by which nerve impulses travel from the receptor to the effector in a reflex action

Involuntary actions of the skeletal muscles: reflex A

Sharp nail pierces the skin, causing sensory receptors in the skin to generate nerve impulses Nerve impulses transmitted along an afferent neurone toward the spinal cord

B
Nerve impulses transmitted from interneurone efferent neurone effector (muscle tissue) Finger pull away from the nail

C
In the spinal cord, nerve impulses transmitted from afferent neurone interneurone

Involuntary actions of the skeletal muscles: reflex

Pulling away of finger from a sharp nail involves 3 types of neurones:

Afferent neurone Interneurone Efferent neurone

Knee-jerk reflex / patellar reflex involves the simplest neural circuit only 2 kinds of neurones involved:
Afferent neurones Efferent neurones

Involuntary actions of the skeletal muscles: reflex 1

Rubber hummer hits a tendon that connects the quadriceps muscle in the thigh to a bone in the lower leg

2
Force stretches the quadriceps muscles & stimulates the stretch receptors in the muscles, triggering nerve impulses

3Afferent neurones transmit

the info to the efferent neurones in the spinal cord

4
Efferent neurones transmit this info to the quadriceps muscle muscle contracts jerking the lower leg forward

The important of reflex action

Provide an immediate withdrawal from harmful & dangerous stimuli Coordinate rapid automatic responses to stimuli without conscious control from the brain Although most reflex actions involve the spinal cord, some reflex actions, however, involve the brain. Eg: opening & closing of the pupil of the eye

Involuntary actions smooth & cardiac muscle / glands

Automatic nervous system

Control involuntary actions glands, cardiac muscles of the heart & smooth muscles of the internal organs (intestine & stomach) Connect the medulla oblongata & hypothalamus with the internal organs & regulates the internal body process that require no conscious effort

Permit vital functions (eg: heartbeats & blood circulation) to continue even during states of unconsciousness (sleeping, fainting)

Involuntary actions smooth & cardiac muscle / glands

Automatic nervous system can be divided into:

The sympathetic division The parasympathetic division

These divisions work together, usually when ` activating and the other inhibiting the actions of the internal organs Both systems are connected to the same organs in the body and act in opposition to maintain homeostasis

Involuntary actions smooth & cardiac muscle / glands

Sympathetic division
Prepare the body for stressful situation or an emergency fight / flight responses - pulse rate, heartbeat rate, blood pressure, breathing rate Slow down the digestive system so that move blood is available to carry O2 to the vital organs (brain, heart, muscles)

Parasympathetic division
Prepare the body during ordinary situation relaxed state responses - pulse rate, blood pressure, breathing rate Stimulates the digestive system to continue breaking down food

Efferent pathway Somatic nervous system

Stimuli from External env

Characteristic Muscles Integrating /glands centre involved Governs voluntary actions Skeletal muscles Skeletal muscles

Actions

Cerebral Reading, cortex of the walking cerebrum Spinal cord Removing hand from a hot stove, knee-jerk reflex

Automatic Internal nervous env system

Governs involuntary action

Glands, cardiac muscles & smooth muscles

Medulla oblongata

Regulates the internal body processes (heartbeats)

Regulates the internal env (body temp)

Hypothalam us

Diseases of the nervous system

Type Symptoms Cause

Parkinsons disease

Shaking of hands at rest. Weakness and stiffness of muscles. Slowness of movement. Poor balance

Alzheimers disease

Dopamine-producing neurones in brain break up. Lack of dopamine ( a neurotransmiiter) in the brain which is important in movement control. Also known as getting Loss of neurones in the senile. areas of the brain for the Cannot remember and memory and other mental behave abnormally. abilities. The patients begins to have Low level of problems speaking, neurotransmitters. understanding, reading, and writing, later become anxious and aggressive and wanders away from home.

Parkinson Disease

Alzheimer Disease

3.3 Hormones
Endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones (chemical messengers) Endocrine glands ductless glands that secretes hormones directly into the interstitial fluid and subsequently into the bloodstream Circulating blood then delivers the hormones throughout the body Although hormones travel in the blood of the body, they affect & influence ONLY specific target cells Hormones bind to the specific receptor molecules on the surface of the plasma membrane of the target cells causes the cell to respond in a specific manner

The need for the endocrine system

Endocrine system & nervous system maintaining homeostasis
Both system often work together Endocrine system usually complements the nervous system

Menstrual cycle, development of 2 sexual characteristics & growth only involve the endocrine system Hormones regulate: rate of heartbeat, metabolism, chemical composition and volume of the interstitial fluid, blood glucose concentration, etc

Human endocrine system

The nervous system Network of nerve cells Control voluntary & involuntary actions Conveys electrical signals (nerve impulses) Messages are conducted via neurones Messages are conveyed rapidly Messages are carried to specific location Responses temporary & reversible The endocrine system Consist of numerous glands Controls involuntary actions Conveys chemical signals (hormones) Messages are conveyed via the bloodstream Messages are conveyed slowly Messages are carried to various destination Responses long-lasting & irreversible

Human endocrine system

Hormones involved in physiological processes Function 3 main categories:
Reproduction Growth homeostasis

Reproduction Functions of hormones Growth Homeostasis

Folicle-stimulating hormone, luteinising hormone, oestrogen, progesterone & androgen

Growth hormone, thyroidstimulating hormone & thyroxine

Insulin, glucagon, antidiuretic hormone & adrenaline

Human endocrine gland

When stimulated, endocrine gland releases its hormones more frequently concentration in blood increased If there is no stimulation, level of the hormones in the blood decrease / inactivated

Human endocrine gland

Thyroxine
Target: all tissue

Increase the metabolic rates of most body cells Increase body temperature Regulates growth & development

Human endocrine gland

Adrenal cortex
Aldosterone
Target: Kidney

Adrenal medulla
Adrenaline & noradrenaline
Target: Cardiac & other muscles

Increase the reabsorption of mineral salts in the kidney

Increase the blood glucose level & fatty acids in the blood Increase heartbeat rate & breathing rate Increase the metabolic rate & constrict some blood vessels

Human endocrine gland

Insulin Glucagon

Target: Liver, muscles & the adipose tissue

Target: Liver, muscles & the adipose tissue

Decrease blood glucose levels Stimulates the conversion of glucose to glycogen

Increase the blood glucose level Stimulates the conversion of glycogen to glucose

Human endocrine gland

Androgen (eg: testosterone)

Target: Gonads, skin, muscles & bones

Stimulate the development of the male 2 sexual characteristics Stimulates spermatogenesis

Human endocrine gland

Oestrogen

Target: Gonads, skin, muscles & bones

Progesterone
Target: Gonads

Stimulate the developing of the uterine lining & formation of the placenta Inhibit ovulation

Stimulates the development of the female 2 sexual characteristics & maturation of the ova Promotes the repair of the uterine lining

Human endocrine gland

Human endocrine gland

Neurosecretory cells secrete hypothalamic releasing hormones & hypothalamic inhibiting hormones These hormones are carried in the bloodstream to the anterior pituitary ADH & oxytocin are secreted from the synaptic terminals

Human endocrine gland

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Target: kidney

Oxytocin

Target: smooth muscles in the uterus, mammary gland

Stimulates water reabsorption by the renal tubules in the kidney

Stimulates the contraction of the uterine muscles during childbirth Stimulates the release of milk from the mammary glands in females Causes sperm ejection in males

Human endocrine gland

Growth hormone (GH)

Target: bones & tissues

Thyroidstimulating hormone (TSH)

Target: Thyroid gland

Prolectin
Target: mammary gland

Stimulates growth, protein synthesis & fat metabolism

Stimulates thyroid gland to secrete thyroxine

Stimulates milk production & secretion from the mammary gland

Human endocrine gland

Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
Target: Adrenal cortex

Stimulates adrenal cortex to release hormones

Luteinising hormone (LH)

Target: Gonads (ovaries & testes)

Stimulates ovulation, development of corpus luteum & secretion of oestrogen & progesterone in female Stimulates the secretion of testostresone in males

Follicle-stimulating hormones (FSH)

Target: Gonads (ovaries & testes)

Stimulates development of follicles in the ovaries in female Stimulates spermatogenesis in males

Human endocrine gland

Hormones secretion is regulated by

Signals from the nervous system

Other hormones

Level of specific substances in the body

Human endocrine gland

a) Regulation of hormones secretion by signal from the nervous system Pituitary gland - master endocrine gland because it secretes hormones that control other endocrine glands Pituitary itself controlled by the hypothalamus Pituitary gland anterior pituitary & posterior pituitary glands Posterior pituitary gland axons & synaptic terminals of the neurosecretory cells that originate in the hypothalamus

Human endocrine gland

Regulation of hormones secretion by signal from the nervous system Hypothalamus
controlling the secretion of hormones from the pituitary glands Link between the nervous & endocrine system Maintain homeostasis receiving nerve impulses about the condition of the internal env Specialised nerve cells neurosecretory cells

Human endocrine gland

Regulation of hormones secretion by signal from the nervous system
How hormones secretion is regulated by signals from the nervous system
Neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus The cells bodies of the neurosecretory cells are located in the hypothalamus These cell bodies secrete the following hormones

ADH & oxytoxin These hormones pass through the axon posterior pituitary cell blood stream

Hypothalamic releasing hormones stimulate the secretion of the anterior pituitary hormones Hypothalamic inhibiting hormones suppress the secretion of the anterior pituitary hormones

Human endocrine gland

Regulation of hormones secretion by other hormones
Hormone from the target gland exerts a negative feedback control over the secretion of the stimulating hormone

Human endocrine gland

Regulation of hormones secretion by other hormones
Anterior pituitary gland secretes Thyroid-stimulating hormones (TSH) stimulates

Thyroid gland (target gland)

secretes Thyroxine

Negative feedback inhibits the release of TSH

Human endocrine gland

a) Regulation of hormones secretion by level of specific substances in the blood Eg: blood glucose level rises, the pancrease produce insulin increase in the glucose uptake by cells Cells either metabolise the glucose or convert it to glycogen As a result, the blood glucose level returns to its normal level

Fight or flight
During a threatening situation for example a fierce dog suddenly barks at you, the hypothalamus sends nerve impulses directly to adrenal medulla. The adrenal medulla , the innermost region of the adrenal gland, has neurones from sympathetic divisions of the autonomic system. The sequence of events take place in fight or flight situation

 In fight and flight situation

Nerve impulses from the hypothalamus. Stimulate the neurone from the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system in adrenal medulla .

Stimulate the cells of adrenal medulla to secrete adrenaline & noradrenaline.

Adrenaline & noradrenaline cause

Increase of : heartbeat, breathing rate, blood pressure, blood glucose level, metabolic activities. The heart pump more oxygen and glucose to brain & skeletal muscle to : i) the brain needs to be highly alert to mobilize various part of the body ii) The skeletal muscle become more energized and enable a person fight off an attacker or flee immediately from danger.

Hormonal imbalances & related diseases

Hormones Excess of hormone Deficiency of hormone

Growth hormone Abnormal increase in the length of bonegigantism.

Retardation of bone growth & cause dwarfism. ( where the person fail to grow and the size of body still like a child.

Hormones
Thyroxine

Excess of hormone

Deficiency of hormone
Cause myxedema in adulthood. Slows down heart rate, low body temperature, general lethargy, gain weight easily. Causes severe mental retardation (cretinism, ) during childhood. Lack of iodine reduces the secretion of thyroxine.

An increase in the metabolic rate of the body. Excessive sweating, nervousness, rapid heart rate and weight loss. Enlarge of the thyroid gland (goiter).

goitre

myxedema

Hormones
Insulin

Excess of hormone
Abnormally low level of glucose in the blood (hypoglycaemia). Fatigue, mental confusion. Severe hypoglycaemia can cause convulsions and unconsciousness.

Deficiency of hormone

Leads to diabetes mellitus. ( high level of sugar in blood). An increases frequency of urination, excessive thirst, numbness or burning sensation in the feet, ankles, legs. Blurred /poor vision, slow healing of wounds.

Hypoglycaemia

Hormones Excess of hormone Deficiency of hormone Antidiuretic Causes high Cause diabetes hormone (ADH) retention of water in insipidus ( a large the body ( oedema volume of urine is ). excreted). Patients usually feel thirsty.

3.4 Homeostasis in human

Internal env interstitial fluid & blood plasma consistantly bathe the cells Physical factors (body temp, blood pressue, osmotic pressure) & chemical factors (blod sugar & salt level, O2 & CO2) in the internal env need to be maintain for the cell to function optimumly Homeostasis = maintenance of relatively constant internal env important for enzymatic & metabolic processes

The excretory system

Primary organ kidney
Regulate water & salt balance in body Regulate osmotic pressure & ionic level in blood Excrete waste products Regulate blood pH

Waste products excreted by kidney

From metabolic reactions in the body, eg: urea & creatinine breakdown of animo acid, uric acids breakdown of nucleic acid Foreign substances in diet, eg: drugs / toxins

Human kidney
Filter blood & form urine exit the body through ureters, urinary bladder & urethra Urine = water + urea + dissolved waste + excess nutrient
Contains 2 regions
Cortex outer light-red region Medulla inner dark-red region

Human kidney
The nephron Nephron function unit of kidney Each human kidney ~ 1 million nephron Consist 3 major part
Glomerulus
Bowmans capsule Renal tubule

Cortex Cortex & medulla

Renal tubule is made up of

Proximal convoluted tubule Loop of Henle

Medulla

Cortex

Distal convoluted tubule

Distal convoluted tubules of several nephron join to a common collecting duct

Human kidney
The nephron

Human kidney
a) The nephron b) Blood supply to each nephron by an afferent arteriole, a branch of the renal artery c) Afferent arteriole divides further into a tangled capillary network glomerulus d) Glomerulus reunite to form an efferent arteriole e) Efferent arteriole divides to form a network of blood capillaries surrounding the renal tubules f) Network of blood capillary eventually join together into the renal vein
b a

Human kidney
The nephron Bowmans capsule Made up of 2 layers of cells surrounding glomerulus Capsular space space between 2 layers of cells
Podocytes cells make up inner wall Podocytes adhere closely to the endothelial cells of the glomerulus

Formation of urine
Taking part in nephron Processes:
A. Ultrafiltration B. Reabsorption C. Secretion

B Reabsoption

C Secretion A Ultrafiltration

From the collecting duct, urine bladder urethra excretion Normally, urine is clear, pale to deep yellow in colour, slightly acidic Urine contains excess water, mineral salts, urea, uric acids & creatinine

B Reabsoption

Formation of urine
A. ultrafiltration in the Bowmans capsule

Larger diameter

Podocytes

Hydrostatic pressure

Formation of urine
A. ultrafiltration in the Bowmans capsule Podocytes + endothelium of the glumerulus = filtration membrane permits the passage of water & solutes from blood into the capsular space Diameter: afferent arteriole>efferent arteriole = high hydrostatic pressure in nephron high hydrostatic pressure forces fluid through filtration membrane into capsular space, formed glomerular filtrate

Formation of urine
A. ultrafiltration in the Bowmans capsule Glomerular filtrate
Contain water, glucose, amino acids, urea, mineral salts & small molecules =blood plasma without [red blood cell & white blood cells]

Red blood cells and proteins too large, remain in the blood as flows into the efferent arteriole

Formation of urine
B. Reabsorption Useful substances reabsobed from renal tubule into the capillary network 1. Reabsorption proximal convoluted tubule
Na+ actively pump into capillary network Cl- follow passively Glucose & amino acids active transport (cells of proximal convoluted tubule consist of many mitochondria to generate ATP) Water osmosis

2. Reabsorption loop of Henle

Water, Na+ & Cl-

Formation of urine
B. Reabsorption 3. Reabsorption distal convoluted tubule
The watery filtrate which is now low in salt but high in wastes, eg: urea More water, Na+ & Cl- are reabsorbed

4. Reabsorption collecting duct

Collection duct contain very little salt 99% of water has been absorbed into bloodstream 1% of water in the filtrate leaves body as urine The filtrate is now called urine Urea which remains in the collecting duct is excreted in the urine

 Reabsorption in the loop of Henle

Formation of urine
C. Secretion Waste & excess substances secreted from the blood renal tubule Take place in
distal convoluted tubule ACTIVELY Collecting ducts

Occurs by
Passive diffusion Active transport

Secreted substances: H+, K+, urea, creatinine, toxic substances & drugs

Formation of urine
C. Secretion Helps to
Eliminate & increase the rate of waste removal from the body Regulate the levels of certain ions in the blood, eg: blood pH dips too low, kidney will secrete more H+. When the level of [K+] in blood rises, kidney will secrete more K+

By adjusting the amount of ions to reabsorb or to secrete, kidney can regulate the chemical composition of the blood

H+, K+, urea, creatinine, toxic substances & drugs

H+, K+, urea, creatinine, toxic substances & drugs

H+, K+, urea, creatinine, toxic substances & drugs

Negative feedback mechanisms

Regulating
Blood sugar levels Body temperature Blood osmotic pressure Partial pressure of O2 & CO2

Negative feedback whenever a change occurs in a system, the change automatically initiates a corrective mechanism which reverses the original change & brings the system back to normal

Negative feedback mechanisms

Excess the value rises above the normal value

Corrective mechanism Negative feedback

Normal value

Normal value
Negative feedback

Deficiency the value drops below the normal value

Corrective mechanism

Negative feedback mechanisms

Contrast to negative feedback mechanism, the positive feedback mechanism produces a response that intensifies the original change
Usually harmful & rare because the response tends to proceed in the same way as the initial stimulus rather than to return the change to its normal value Eg: release of hormone oxytoxin which stimulates & intensifies contraction during labour

Role of kidneys in homeostasis

Maintenance of water balance of body fluid is achieved by keeping the blood volume & blood osmotic pressure stable Osmosis process of maintaining the water content of the blood at constant level Osmoregulation is achieved by regulating the volume of urine production & excretion from the kidneys negative feedback mechanism Hormone involved: antidiuretic hormones (ADH) produced in hypothalamus & stored in posterior pituitary gland before it is release to bloodstream

Role of kidneys in homeostasis

Osmoreceptor cells in hypothalamus monitor the blood osmotic pressure
Blood osmotic pressure increase when sweating a lot or drinks too little water Decrease in blood volume occurs during haemorrhage or severe dehydration

Water content falls below normal range [solute] blood osmotic pressure

Role of kidneys in homeostasis

1. Drink too much of water blood osmotic pressure decrease below the normal range 2. Osmoreceptor cells in hypothalamus less stimulated less ADH secreted from pituitaty gland Adrenal gland is stimulated to release aldosterone distal convoluted tubule & collecting duct become more permeable to mineral salts more salts is reabsorbed into the blood 6. Negative feedback in the 5. Increase in the blood hypothalamus osmotic pressure return to the normal range

3. Lower level of ADH causes the distal convoluted tubule & collecting duct to be less permeable to water

4. Less water is reabsorbed from the filtrate into the blood urine contains more water more dilute lighter in colour

Role of kidneys in homeostasis

1. Drink too little of water blood osmotic pressure increase below the normal range 2. Osmoreceptor cells in hypothalamus are stimulated more ADH secreted from pituitaty gland Adrenal gland is not stimulated to release aldosterone lesser amount of salt is reabsorbed 6. Negative feedback in the hypothalamus stop stimulating the pituitary gland to secrete more ADH

3. Higher level of ADH increase the permeability of distal convoluted tubule & collecting duct

5. Decrease in the blood osmotic pressure return to the normal range

4. More water is reabsorbed from the filtrate into the blood urine contains less water more concentrate darker

Homeostasis & kidney transplant

Kidney damaged may due to disease, drugs or injury People can still survive with 1 kidney If both kidney stop functioning, osmoregulation can not be carried out buildup of toxic waste in the blood result in lifethreatening condition have to undergo haemodialysis Haemodialysis process of filtering blood using an artificial means replaces the function of a failed kidney
Treatment for later stage of chronic kidney disease / kidney failure 1 treatment takes ~6h, 3 times per week

Homeostasis & kidney transplant

During haemodialysis, blood from artery is passed through the machine which contains a dialyser (artificial kidney)
Dialyser has 2 section separated by a semipermeable membrane Blood passes on the 1 side of the membrane & the dialyser solution passes on the other Concentration gradient between blood & dialyser solution excess salt & waste product from blood diffuse into the dialyser solution Glucose & other required substances that diffuse out of the blood may also be restored by the dialyser solution Blood is then return to the body

Homeostasis & kidney transplant

Homeostasis & kidney transplant

Homeostasis & kidney transplant

Another treatment for impaired kidney function is the transplant of a healthy kidney from a donor to the patient Risk: recipients body may reject the transplanted organ Solution: medicine counteract organ rejection greatly increased the no of successful kidney transplants

The regulation of blood glucose level

Pancreas responsible for maintaining the blood sugar level normal range 75-110 mg/ 100ml Islet cells in pancreas produce & secrete insulin & glucagon directly into bloodstream
-cells of the islets of Langerhans secrete insulin reduce blood glucose level -cells secrete glucagon increase blood glucose level

Actions of these hormones & negative feedback mechanism maintain normal glucose level

The regulation of blood glucose level

Pancreas secrete insulin
Insulin Liver cells Use glucose for respiration Convert excess glucose to glycogen & store

stimulates
Muscle cells Use glucose for respiration Convert excess glucose to glycogen & store & build protein

After eating

Adipose tissue Use glucose for respiration Use glucose to form fat

HOMEOSTASIS Blood glucose level range 75-110mg/100ml

The regulation of blood glucose level

HOMEOSTASIS Blood glucose level range 75-110mg/100ml

In between eating / strenuous exercise

Adipose tissue Breakdown lipids which release fatty acids that can be metabolised to generate energy Liver break down glycogen glucose

stimulates
Glucagon

Pancreas secrete glucagon

The regulation of body temperature

Although external temperature may fluctuate, the body maintains a constant temperature of 37C optimum temp for metabolic & enzymatic rxn Set point = normal body temp

The regulation of body temperature

Changes in the external temperature
Detected by Detected by

A change in normal body temperature

Thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus

Thermoreceptors in the skin

Detect body temperature

Thermoregulatory centre in the hypothalamus Various effectors to either raise or reduce the body temperature to the normal level Detect external temperature

The regulation of body temperature

Body temperature drops below set point
Smooth muscles in the arterioles Vasoconstriction occurs smooth muscle around the afferent arterioles contract Decrease the amount of blood flowing through the skin reduce heat lost through radiation Erector muscles in the skin Contract raising skin hairs & trapping an insulating layer of warm, still air next to the skin prevent heat lost Sweat gland Sweating does not occur & body heat is conserved Skeletal muscles Stimulated shivering occurs heat generated Adrenal & thyroid glands in the skin Stimulated to secrete more adrenaline & thyroxine Increase metabolic rate generates more heat

Body temperature back to normal

The regulation of body temperature

Body temperature rises above set point
Smooth muscles in the arterioles Vasodilation occurs smooth muscle around the afferent arterioles relax Increase the amount of blood flowing through the skin increase heat lost through radiation Erector muscles in the skin relax lowering skin hairs, so that warm air is not trapped & free to escape Sweat gland Secrete sweat Heat lost when sweat evaporated Skeletal muscles NOT stimulated shivering does NOT occurs Adrenal & thyroid glands in the skin Less stimulated to secrete adrenaline & thyroxine Metabolic rate low not excess heat is generated

Body temperature back to normal

3.5 Practicing a healthy lifestyle

Drugs can alter brain functions & the rates at which neurones release neurotransmitters Many types of drugs used in medicinal purpose small amount Use of drugs other than medicinal purposes can lead to serious side effects & even death Abuse of drugs tolerance of the drugs more & more of the drugs is needed Addicted person will experience withdrawal symptoms, eg: shivering, sweating & nausea, when he is deprived of the drugs Drug addiction affects the nervous system

3.5 Practicing a healthy lifestyle

Types of drugs Effects on the body

Stimulants

Increase the activity of the central nervous system Eg: cocaine blocks the removal of pleasureinducing neurotransmitters Excessive use, cause a temporary ecstacy that is soon followed by depression once the level of the neurotransmitters falls to its normal level

Depressants

Often slow down the activity of the central nervous system Depressants (eg: transquilisers) slow down the transmission of nerve impulses Alcohol inhibits the release of ADH passes large volumes of urine leads to dehydration

3.5 Practicing a healthy lifestyle

Types of drugs Effects on the body

Hallucinogens LSD (D-lysergic acid diethylamide) causes a user to see, hear & preceive things that do not exist (hallucinate)
Narcotics Heroin & morphine mimick neurotransmitters by binding to their receptor sites Induce feeling of ecstacy, block pain signals & slow down normal brain function

3.6 Plant Hormones

Positive phototropism growth of shoot towards sunlight Negative phototropism growth of shoot away from sunlight Coleoptile sheath enclose grass seedling

3.6 Plant Hormones

Coleoptile tough protective enclose the shoot tips of monocotyledonous plant. When the coleoptile degenerates during seed germination, the shoot emerges

Types of Plant Hormones

Regulates growth & development Eg: auxin & ethylene Auxin
Promote cell elongation / cell lengthening Produce in apical meristem at tip of the shoot Increase cell division Promote cell elongation Unequal distribution in the shoot caused positive phototropism in plant shoot

Types of Plant Hormones

positive phototropism in plant shoot

Types of Plant Hormones

If the shoots of a plant are exposed to uniform light from all sides or kept in the dark, they will grow straight upwards

Discovery experiment of auxin

(b) (a)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

Observation

Inference and explanation

a) No growth to the coleoptile

b) No bending of the coleoptile tip and the coleoptile tip grows upward c) Coleoptile bends towards the light

The coleoptiles tip i) Detects light ii) Produces auxin - Auxin is distributed down the coleoptile and cause the upward elongation. - Auxin is distributed to the shaded region and cause the uneven elongation of coleoptile tip. So, the shoot bends.

Observation

Inference and explanation

d) The coleoptile tip bends towards the light.

e) The coleoptile tips bends towards the light.

f) No elongation and no bending of coleoptile

-Light is detected by the coleoptile. - The auxin is distributed towards shaded region and cause uneven bending. - Auxin diffuses through the agar into shaded region below which causes the shoot to bend. Mica prevents auxin from diffusing to the region below the tip of the shaded side.

Experiment by Frits Went

Explanation - Auxin from agar blocks diffuses down along one side of each coleoptiles stump causing it to bend.

Experiment by Arpad Paal (1919)

Auxin from each tip passes down along one side of each coleoptiles stump causing a greater elongation on the side which results in bending.

Types of Plant Hormones

Role of auxin in geotropism
Shoot +ve phototropism
shoot elongates rapidly if [auxin]

Root +ve geotropism

root elongates rapidly if [auxin]

Auxin Stimulate elongation at shoot Inhibit elongation at root

Types of Plant Hormones

If the plant is placed horizontally, both light & gravity cause auxins to be transported to the lower sides of both the shoot & root Once the shoot tip is vertical, the distribution of auxins becomes even stem grows straight up

Higher concentration of auxins there causes cells on the lower part to elongate rapidly shoot bends upwards & root ben downwards

Once the root tip point directly downwards, the auxin distribution becomes equal on all sides root grow straight downwards

Types of Plant Hormones

Role of auxin Stimulate the growth of adventitious roots from the stem from stem cuttings of commercial plants Parthenocarpy induce the development of seedless fruit without pollination & fertilisation of flowers Promote the growth of fruits and crop plants

Types of Plant Hormones

Growth response of plant organs to applied auxin

1. [auxin] needed to achieve max growth response in shoot inhibits root growth 2. [auxin] that stimulates root growth is too low to stimulate shoot growth

% stimulation Shoots

Root

% inhibition Auxin concentration (M)

Types of Plant Hormones

Ethylene / ethane Plant hormone synthesis during ripening of fruit Synthesis in fruits, leaves & stems Function:
Speed up ripening of fruits stimulating the production of cellulase hydrolyses the callulose in plant cell walls fruit soft Promotes the breakdown of comples carbohydrates into simple sugar ripe fruit tastes sweeter than unripe fruit

Types of Plant Hormones

Ethylene / ethane Ethylene (gaseous form) can diffuse freely placing a basket of ripe mangoes with unripe banana inducing ripening of banana Farmers immature fruits have been picked and applied ethylene to ripen the fruits

Practice multiple choice

1. Which of the following are involuntary actions? I Heartbeat II Reading a book III Winking of eyes IV Peristalsis
A. I & II B. I & IV C. II & IV D. III & IV

Practice multiple choice

2. Diagram at right shows a synapse at a nerve ending.
What is P? A. Acetylcholine B. Oxytocin C. Adrenaline D.Prolactin

Practice multiple choice

3. Diagram shows a knee-jerk reflex arc
Which structure, A, B, C or D, carries nerve impulses from the receptor to the spinal cord?
A D C B

Practice multiple choice

4. Which type of neurones are P and R?
P
A Efferent neurone B Efferent neurone C Afferent neurone P

R
Afferent neurone Interneurone Q Efferent neurone R

D Interneurone Efferent neurone

Practice multiple choice

5. Which row in the table shows how information passes from nuerone P to neurone Q and along neurone R?
From P to Q Along R A Chemical B Chemical C Electrical D Electrical Electrical Chemical Electrical Chemical P

Practice multiple choice

6. Diagram below shows a cross section of the spinal cord of a mammal.
Which region contains the axons of the efferent neurones?
D A B

Practice multiple choice

7. What is the function of the axon of an efferent neurone?
A. conducts nerve impulses towards the cell body B. conducts nerve impulses away from the cell body C. speeds up the transmission of the nerve impulses D. Release the neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft

Practice multiple choice

8. Diagram represents a simple reflex arc
What is the sequence of neurones through which a nerve impulse passes during a reflex action?
First Last A B C D P P Q R Q R P P R Q R Q Finger P R

Muscle

Practice multiple choice

9. What should a person do if he wants to maintain a normal blood glucose level when his diseased pancreas has been removed?
A. Take a balance diet B. Eat low-calorie food C. Take glucose injection D. Take insulin and glucagon injection

Practice multiple choice

10. Goitre can be prevented by
A. Eating more seafood B. Immunisation C. Eating food rich in fibre D. Reducing the intake of food high in fat

Practice multiple choice

11. Diagram shows the functions of hormones X and Y in the regulation of blood glucose level
Hormone X

Glycogen
Hormone Y

Glucose

What are hormones X and Y?

Hormone X A Glucagon B Insulin C Adrenaline Hormone Y Thyroxine Glucagon Aldosterone

D Glucagon

Insulin

Practice multiple choice

12. Diagram shows the human endocrine system
A B

Which of the glands, A, B, C or D, is involves when an individual faces a moment of fright?

Practice multiple choice

13. Diagram shows the human endocrine system Which of the following correctly matches the gland with the function controlled by a hormone it releases?
A. Gland L releases a hormone that controls sexual development in females B. Gland O releases a hormone that controls blood glucose level C. Gland M releases a hormone that control the rate of biochemical reactions in cells D. Gland K releases a hormone that controls water balance
K L

Practice multiple choice

14. Diagram shows the changes in the blood glucose level of a normal person
Hormone X
Effect

Hormone Y

Based on the graph, which statement is true?

A. Hormone X lower the blood glucose level B. The level of hormone Y increases when blood glucose level is high C. -cells in the pancreas are stimulated when the blood glucose level is low D. -cells in the pancreas are stimulated when blood glucose is high

Practice multiple choice

15. Which structure absorbs glucose by active transport?
A. Glomerulus B. Collecting duct C. Bowmans capsule D. Proximal convoluted tubule

Practice multiple choice

16. The pituitary gland
A. controls the activity of other endocrine glands B. controls the activity of the central nervous system C. controls the activity of the hypothalamus D. is controlled by the adrenal glands

Practice multiple choice

17. An individual likes to eat salty food in his daily diet. What is the effect of taking this type of food on the production of his urine?
A. little and diluted B. much and diluted C. little and concentrated D. much and concentrated