CH 19 A

Electronics Fundamentals 8
th
edition
Floyd/Buchla
2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
chapter 19
electronics fundamentals
circuits, devices, and applications
THOMAS L. FLOYD
DAVID M. BUCHLA
Chapter 1 Chapter 19
th
edition
Floyd/Buchla
Summary
Comparators
Op-amps can be used to compare the amplitude of one
voltage with another. Although general-purpose op-amps
can be used as comparators, special op-amps are available
to optimize speed and add features.
An example of a comparison circuit
is shown. The input is compared
with a reference set by the voltage-
divider. Notice that there is no
feedback; the op-amp is operated in
open-loop, so the output will be in
saturation.
V
in

R
1

V
out

+

R
2

+V

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Floyd/Buchla
Summary
Sketch the output of the comparator in relationship to the input;
assume the maximum output is 13 V.
V
in

R
1

V
out

+

R
2

V = +15 V

10 kO
3.9 kO
The threshold is +4.2 V. The output is in
positive saturation when V
in
> +4.2 V
V
in

+10 V

10 V

0 V

+4.2 V
+13 V

13 V

0 V

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Floyd/Buchla
Summary
Show the output of the comparator for the last example if the inputs
to the op-amp are reversed.
V
in

R
1

V
out

+

R
2

V = +15 V

10 kO
3.9 kO
The threshold is still +4.2 V but now
the output is in negative saturation
when V
in
> +4.2 V.
V
in

+10 V

10 V

0 V

+4.2 V
+13 V

13 V

0 V

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Floyd/Buchla
Summary
Summing amplifier
There are a number of useful applications for the basic
inverting amplifier configuration. One is the summing
amplifier that uses two or more inputs and one output.
R
1

V
IN1
V
IN2
V
IN3
V
INn
R
2

R
3

R
n

R
f

+

V
OUT
The virtual ground isolates
the inputs from each other.
Input current from each
input is passed to R
f
, which
develops an output voltage
that is proportional to the
algebraic sum of the inputs.
Virtual ground
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Floyd/Buchla
Summary
Averaging amplifier
An averaging amplifier is a variation of the summing
amplifier in which all input resistors are equal. The
feedback resistor is the reciprocal of the number of inputs
times the input resistor value.
R
1

V
IN1
V
IN2
V
IN3
R
2

R
3

R
f

+

V
OUT
For example, if there
are three input
resistors, each with a
value of 10 kO, then
R
f
= 3.3 kO to form an
averaging amplifier.
10 kO
10 kO
10 kO
3.3 kO
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Summary
Scaling adder
A scaling adder is another variation of the summing
amplifier in which the input resistors are adjusted to weight
inputs differently. The input weight is proportional to the
current from that input.
R
1

V
IN1
V
IN2
V
IN3
R
2

R
3

R
f

+

V
OUT
Larger resistors will allow
less current for a given
input voltage, so they have
less weight than smaller
resistors. In the case shown,
V
IN3
is weighted 2 times
more than V
IN2
, which is 2
times more than V
IN1
.
10 kO
5.0 kO
2.5 kO
10 kO
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Floyd/Buchla
Summary
Scaling adder
R
1

V
IN1
V
IN2
V
IN3
R
2

R
3

R
f

+

V
OUT
10 kO
5.0 kO
2.5 kO
10 kO
What is V
OUT
for the scaling adder if all
inputs are + 1.0 V?
By Ohms law, the currents into R
f
are
I
1
= 0.1 mA, I
2
= 0.2 mA and I
3
= 0.4 mA.
Using the superposition
theorem, the current in
R
f
is 0.7 mA. From
Ohms law, V
OUT
= 7 V
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Summary
Integrators
Mathematical integration is basically a summing
process. Within certain limitations, an integrator
circuit simulates this process.
The ideal integrator is
essentially a summing
amplifier with a
capacitor in place of
the feedback resistor.
R
C
V
in
V
out
In practical circuits, a large
value resistor is usually in
parallel with the capacitor
to prevent the output from
drifting into saturation.
R
f
+

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Floyd/Buchla
Summary
Integrators
For the ideal integrator, the rate of change of the
output is given by
R
C
V
in
V
out
out in
i
V V
t RC
A
=
A
The minus sign in the equation is due to the inverting amplifier.
If the input is a square wave centered about 0 V, the output is a
negative triangular wave (provided saturation is not reached).
V
in
V
out
0 V
0 V
+

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edition
Floyd/Buchla
Summary
R
C
V
in
V
out
( )( )
5 V
100 s =
2.7 k 33 nF
in
out
i
V
V t
RC
A = A =
O
A 5 kHz square wave with 10 V
pp
is applied to a
practical integrator. Show the output waveform voltages.
33 nF
2.7 kO
270 kO
R
f
During the positive input ( the period), the change
in the output is
5.6 V
The feedback resistor (R
f
) is
large compared to R, so has little
effect on the shape of the
waveform. In a practical circuit,
it will cause the output
waveform to center on zero as
shown on the following slide.
+

th
edition
Floyd/Buchla
Summary
R
C
V
in
V
out
33 nF
2.7 kO
270 kO
R
f
The results of a computer
simulation on Multisim confirm
the calculated change (5.6 V) in
output voltage (blue line).
continued
+

th
edition
Floyd/Buchla
Summary
Differentiators
In mathematics, differentiation is the process of finding
the rate of change. An idea differentiator circuit is
shown. It produces an inverted output that is
proportional to the rate of change of the input.
+

C
V
in
V
out
In practical circuits, a small value
resistor is added in series with the input
to prevent high frequency ringing.
R
in
V
in
R
f
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Floyd/Buchla
Summary
Differentiators
The output voltage for the ideal differentiator is given
by
+

R
f
C
V
in
V
out
C
out f
V
V R C
t
| |
=
|
\ .
The minus sign in the equation is due to the inverting amplifier.
If the input is a ramp, the output is a negative dc level for the
positive slope and a positive dc level for the negative slope.
V
in
V
out
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Floyd/Buchla
Summary
A 1.0 kHz, 10 V
pp
triangular wave is applied to a
practical differentiator as shown. Show the output in relationship
to the input.
When the input has a positive slope, the output is
( )( )
10 V
2.7 k 100 nF
0.5 ms
C
out f
V
V R C
t
| | | |
= = O =
| |
\ . \ .
R
f
C
V
in
100 nF
2.7 kO
120 O
+

V
out
R
in
V
in
+5.0 V
5.0 V
0 V
5.4 V
By symmetry, when the input has a negative slope, the
output will be +5.4 V.
See next slide for waveforms
0 1 ms 2 ms
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Floyd/Buchla
Summary
continued
The results of a computer
simulation on Multisim confirm
the calculated output voltages
(5.4 V). The output voltage is
the blue line.
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Floyd/Buchla
JFET bias circuit
Negative feedback with
JFET gain control
Lead-lag circuit
Summary
Oscillators
The feedback oscillators introduced in Chapter 17 and
other types of feedback oscillators can be implemented
with op-amps.
One type of feedback
oscillator is called the
Wien-bridge oscillator.
This circuit is useful for
generating low distortion
sine waves.
+

R
1

R
2

R
3

R
f
Q
1
C
1

C
2

C
3

D
1

R
4

V
out
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edition
Floyd/Buchla
+

R
3

R
f
Q
1
C
3

D
1

R
4

V
out
Summary
Oscillators
R
1

R
2

C
1

C
2

The lead-lag circuit in the Wien-bridge oscillator has a
maximum response at the resonant frequency given by
1
2
r
f
RC
=
This equation is valid when
Rs and Cs in the lead-lag
circuit are equal.
The lead-lag circuit
response is
Because the attenuation is
at f
r
, the gain of the
Wien bridge must set for 3.
V
out
V
out
V
in
f
r
f

V
in
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edition
Floyd/Buchla
Summary
Wien-bridge oscillator
+
R
1

R
2

R
3

R
f
Q
1
C
1

C
2

C
3

D
1

R
4

V
out
47 nF
47 nF
6.8 kO
6.8 kO
The frequency is given by
( ) ( )
1
2
1
2 6.8 k 47 nF
r
f
RC
=
=
O
=
498 Hz
1.0 kO 10 kO
10 kO
1.0 F
What is the frequency of the bridge?
th
edition
Floyd/Buchla
Summary
Triangular-wave oscillator
A triangular-wave oscillator can be made from a
comparator and an integrator. The integrator produces
a ramp due to the constant current charging of the
capacitor. When the ramp reaches a trip point, the
comparator suddenly switches to opposite level and the
ramp changes direction.
V
out (triangle)
V
out (square)
Comparator Integrator
+

+

R
3

R
2

R
1

C
th
edition
Floyd/Buchla
Summary
Square-wave relaxation oscillator
The square-wave relaxation oscillator uses a
comparator to switch the output based on the charging
and discharging of a capacitor.
C
V
out
+

R
3

R
2

R
1

V
out
th
edition
Floyd/Buchla
Summary
Active filters
By reversing the resistors and capacitors in the low-pass
circuit, a high-pass filter is created. This filter has a gain
of 1 at frequencies where f > f
c
.
V
out
+

R
2
R
1

C
2

C
1

V
in
Gain (dB)

f

f
c
3
0
40 dB/decade +

R
2

R
1

C
2
C
1

V
in
Gain (dB)

f
c
3
0
40 dB/decade
A filter selects certain frequencies and excludes others.
Active filters use op-amps to optimize the frequency
response. A 2-pole low-pass filter and its response is
shown. The gain for this filter is 1 (0 dB) for f < f
c
.
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Floyd/Buchla
Summary
Voltage regulators
Voltage regulators are made from integrated circuits. A
basic series IC regulator has four blocks:
Control
element
V
OUT
V
IN
Sample
circuit
Error
detector
Reference
voltage
th
edition
Floyd/Buchla
Summary
Voltage regulators
A series regulator uses a comparator to compare the
output voltage with a reference voltage. The series
transistor drops more or less voltage to keep the output
constant.
V
OUT
+

R
3

R
2

R
1

V
IN
Q
1

The voltage at the inverting
input is forced to be the
same as the reference
voltage by feedback action.
Therefore,
2
OUT REF
3
1
R
V V
R
| |
= +
|
\ .
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Floyd/Buchla
Summary
Voltage regulators
V
OUT
+

R
3

R
2

R
1

V
IN
=

Q
1

What is the output voltage of the series
regulator?
2
OUT REF
3
1
R
V V
R
| |
= +
|
\ .
5.1 V
4.7 kO
+24 V
3.3 kO
6.8 kO
6.8 k
1 5.1 V
3.3 k
=
O
| |
= +
|
O
\ .
15.6 V
th
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Floyd/Buchla
Summary
Voltage regulators
A shunt regulator also has four blocks; it controls the
current in the parallel control element. A series resistor
drops more or less voltage to keep the output constant.

Control
element
V
OUT
V
IN
Sample
circuit
Error
detector
Reference
voltage
R
1

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Floyd/Buchla
Summary
Voltage regulators
V
OUT
V
IN
+

R
3

R
2

R
1

Q
1

R
4

Shunt regulators are not as efficient as series
regulators, but have the advantage of short circuit
protection.
Can you identify
each element in
this circuit?
Sample
circuit
Reference
voltage
Control
element
Error
detector
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Floyd/Buchla
Summing
amplifier

Averaging
amplifier

Scaling adder

Selected Key Terms
An amplifier with several inputs that produces
an output voltage proportional to the algebraic
sum of the inputs.
A special type of summing amplifier with
weighed inputs.
An amplifier with several inputs that produces
an output voltage that is the mathematical
average of the input voltages.
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Floyd/Buchla
I ntegrator

Differentiator

Active filter

Series
regulator
Selected Key Terms
A frequency selective circuit consisting of
active devices such as transistors or op-amps
combined with reactive (RC) circuits.
A circuit that produces an inverted output that
approaches the mathematical integral of the
input.
A circuit that produces an inverted output that
approaches the mathematical derivative of the
input, which is the rate of change.
A type of voltage regulator with the control
element in series between the input and output.
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Floyd/Buchla
Quiz
1. When an op-amp is configured as a comparator, the
gain is equal to
a. 0
b. 1
c. a ratio of two resistors.
d. the open-loop gain.
th
edition
Floyd/Buchla
Quiz
2. The approximate voltage at the inverting input of the
op-amp shown is equal to
R
1

V
IN1
V
IN2
V
IN3
R
2

R
3

R
f

+

V
OUT
10 kO
10 kO
10 kO
3.3 kO
a. the average of the input voltages.
b. the sum of the input voltages.
c. 0 V
d.
OUT
3
V
th
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Floyd/Buchla
Quiz
3. For the scaling adder shown, the input with the greatest
weight is
a. V
IN1

b. V
IN2

c. V
IN3
d. they are all equal.
R
1

V
IN1
V
IN2
V
IN3
R
2

R
3

R
f

+

V
OUT
10 kO
5.0 kO
2.5 kO
10 kO
th
edition
Floyd/Buchla
Quiz
4. In a practical integrator, the purpose of the feedback
resistor (R
f
) is to
a. limit the gain.
b. prevent drift.
c. prevent oscillations.
d. all of the above.
R
C
V
in
V
out
+

R
f
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edition
Floyd/Buchla
Quiz
5. Assume the top waveform represents the input to a
differentiator circuit. Which represents the expected output?
V
in
a.
b.
c.
d.
th
edition
Floyd/Buchla
Quiz
6. The lead-lag network in a Wien bridge with equal value
Rs and Cs attenuates the signal by a factor of

a. 2

b. 3
c. 5
d. 10
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edition
Floyd/Buchla
Quiz
7. A Wien-bridge is used to produce
a. sine waves.
b. square waves.
c. triangle waves.

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Floyd/Buchla
Quiz
8. For the circuit shown, the two outputs (in red) produce
a. sine and square waves.
b. triangle and square waves.
c. sine and triangle waves.
d. sawtooth and triangle waves.

Comparator Integrator
+

+

R
3

R
2

R
1

C
V
out
V
out
th
edition
Floyd/Buchla
Quiz
9. The purpose of the op-amp in the series regulator is
a. to sample the output.
b. to establish a reference.
c. as a control element.
d. error detection.
V
OUT
+

R
3

R
2

R
1

V
IN
Q
1

th
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Floyd/Buchla
Quiz
10. An advantage of a shunt regulator is
a. short circuit protection.
b. efficiency.
c. no need for a reference voltage.

th
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Floyd/Buchla
Quiz
Answers:
1. d
2. c
3. c
4. b
5. c
6. b
7. a
8. b
9. d
10. a

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Electronics Fundamentals 8

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