By: Areeba Qamar

Blood Vessels and Blood Pressure

Physical laws governing blood flow and blood pressure

Flow of blood through out body = pressure gradient within vessels X resistance to flow - Pressure gradient: aortic pressure central venous pressure - Resistance: -- vessel radius -- vessel length -- blood viscosity

Vasculature

The Anatomy of Blood Vessels Structure of vessel walls

Walls of arteries and veins contain three distinct layers

Tunic intima
Tunica media Tunica externa

A Comparison of a Typical Artery and a Typical Vein

Differences between arteries and veins

Compared to veins, arteries Have thicker walls

Have more smooth muscle and elastic fibers

Are more resilient Addd Table

Blood Flow Through the Blood Vessels

Blood flows through the blood vessels from the heart and back to the heart in the following order: Elastic Arteries e.g. Aorta, pulmonary artery Muscular Arteries Arterioles Capillaries the only vessels that allow exchange Venules Medium Veins Large Veins e.g. vena cava, pulmonary vein

Blood Flow Through the Blood Vessels

As blood flows from the aorta toward the capillaries and from capillaries toward the vena cava: Pressure decreases Flow decreases Resistance increases

Arteries
Undergo changes in diameter in order to increase or decrease the size of the artery:

Vasoconstriction decreases the size of the lumen

Vasodilation increases the size of the lumen

Arteries include:
Elastic -conducting Muscular distributes the blood Arteriole - small arteries

Histological Structure of Blood Vessels

Capillaries
Allow exchange of gases, nutrients and wastes between blood and tissues Overall large surface area and low blood flow

Two main types:

- continuous capillaries: narrow space between cells permeable to small or lipid soluble molecules - fenestrated capillaries: large pores between cells large molecules can pass

Capillary Structure

Local control of blood flow in capillaries

Presence of precapillary sphincters on the arteriole and beginning of capillaries Metarteriole: no sphincter continuous blood flow controls the amount of blood going to neighboring vessels

The Organization of a Capillary Bed

Movement of materials across capillary walls

Small molecules and lipid soluble molecules move by diffusion through the cell membrane

Larger molecules, charged molecules must pass through membrane channels, exocytosis or in between 2 cells
Water movement is controlled by the capillary hydrostatic and osmotic pressures

Forces acting across capillary walls

Capillary hydrostatic pressure (CHP) Blood colloid osmotic pressure (BCOP)

Interstitial fluid colloid osmotic pressure (ICOP)

Interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressure (IHP)

Forces controlling water movement

Arterial side of the capillary:
High capillary hydrostatic pressure (CHP), lower capillary osmotic pressure (COP, due to proteins and other molecules in the blood) Net filtration pressure pushes fluid from the blood toward the tissue (but the proteins remain in the capillary

Venous side of the capillary: - Lower hydrostatic pressure (due to resistance) and higher capillary osmotic
pressure Net filtration pressure moves fluid back toward the capillary

Interstitial fluid hydrostatic (IFHP) and osmotic pressures (IFOP) remain overall identical

Forces Acting across Capillary Walls

Fluid movement in the capillary

Arteriole side: fluid moves toward the tissues Venous side: fluid reenters the capillary Overall: for every 1 liter of fluid entering the tissues, only 0.85 l reenter the capillary The remaining 0.15 l is reabsorbed as lymph by lymphatic capillaries and eventually returned back to blood circulation When this system fails: Edema

Veins
Collect blood from all tissues and organs and return it to the heart

Venules and medium-sized veins contain valves Valves prevent backflow of blood
Vein are classified according to their size into:
Venules Medium-sized veins

Large veins

The Function of Valves in the Venous System

The Distribution of Blood in the Cardiovascular System

Cardiovascular Physiology Circulatory Pressure

Circulatory pressure is divided into three components
Blood pressure (BP)

Capillary hydrostatic pressure (CHP)

Venous pressure

Blood pressure is influenced by:

Weight of the person
Age of the person Gender of the person

Time of the day

Resistance (R)

Resistance of the cardiovascular system opposes the movement of blood

For blood to flow, the pressure gradient must overcome total peripheral resistance Peripheral resistance (PR) is the resistance of the arterial system

Arterial blood pressure

Arterial blood pressure
Reflects the driving pressures produced by the ventricles Maintains blood flow through capillary beds Rises during ventricular systole and falls during ventricular diastole

Pulse is a rhythmic pressure oscillation that accompanies each heartbeat

Because arterial pressure is pulsatile, a single value is used to represent the overall driving pressure. This is called the mean arterial pressure.
MAP = diastolic P + 1/3(systolic P-diastolic P)

Mean arterial pressure and its regulation

Regulation of blood flow in arteries

- Intrinsic control
- Extrinsic control -- Neural control -- Hormonal control * Control of blood vessel radius

* Control of blood volume

Mean arterial pressure and its regulation

Regulation of blood flow in arteries

- Intrinsic control
- Extrinsic control -- Neural control -- Hormonal control * Control of blood vessel radius

* Control of blood volume

Regulation of blood flow in arteries

It is important to adjust blood flow to organ needs Flow of blood to particular organ can be regulated by varying resistance to flow (or blood vessel diameter) Vasoconstriction of blood vessel smooth muscle is controlled both by the ANS and at the local level.
Four factors control arterial flow at the organ level: - change in metabolic activity - changes in blood flow - stretch of arterial smooth muscle - local chemical messengers

Intrinsic control of local arterial blood flow

Change in metabolic activity
Usually linked to CO2 and O2 levels ( CO2 vasodilation blood flow) intrinsic control

Stretch of arterial wall = myogenic response - Stretch of arterial wall due to

increased pressure reflex constriction

Changes in blood flow

- decreased blood flow increased metabolic wastes vasodilation

Locally secreted chemicals can promote vasoconstriction or most commonly vasodilation - inflammatory chemicals,
(nitric oxide, CO2)

Autoregulation of blood flow within tissues

Local vasodilators accelerate blood flow in response to: Decreased tissue O2 levels or increased CO2 levels Generation of lactic acid Release of nitric acid Rising K+ or H+ concentrations in interstitial fluid Local inflammation Elevated temperature

Mean arterial pressure and its regulation

Regulation of blood flow in arteries

- Intrinsic control
- Extrinsic control

-- Neural control
-- Hormonal control

* Control of blood vessel radius

* Control of blood volume

Extrinsic control of blood pressure

Two ways to control BP: - Neural control - Hormonal control

** Use negative feedback

Control of blood pressure

Importance: Blood pressure is a key factor for providing blood (thus oxygen and energy) to organs. SBP must be a minimum of 70 to sustain kidney filtration and adequate blood flow to the brain CO= HR X SV = MABP/TPR

MABP= HRxSVxTPR heart rate, stroke volume

and peripheral resistance affect MABP Main factors controlling BP: - Blood volume - Blood vessel radius

Neural control of BP - 1
Baroreceptors: carotid and aortic sinuses sense the blood pressure in the aortic arch and internal carotid send signal to the vasomotor center in the medulla oblongata Other information are sent from the hypothalamus, cortex

Neural control of BP - 2
The vasomotor center integrates all these information The vasomotor sends decision to the ANS center: - Both parasympathetic and sympathetic innervate the S/A node can accelerate or slow down the heart rate - The sympathetic NS innervates the myocardium and the smooth muscle of the arteries and veins promotes vasoconstriction

Regulation of Blood Pressure

Main coordinating center is in the medulla oblongata of the brain; medullary cardiovascular control center

Reflex control of blood pressure

Baroreceptor reflex

Hormonal control of BP
Control of blood vessel radius - Epinephrine Hormones can control blood vessel radius and blood volume, stroke volume and heart rate On a normal basis, blood vessel radius and blood volume are the main factors If there is a critical loss of pressure, then the effects on HR and SV will be noticeable (due to epinephrine kicking in) - Angiotensin II - Vasopressin (?)

Control of blood volume - Anti-diuretic hormone (vasopressin)

- Aldosterone

Control of heart rate and stroke volume - Epinephrine

Control of blood vessel radius

Epinephrine: secreted by the
adrenal medulla and ANS reflex increase HR, stroke volume and promotes vasoconstriction of most blood vessel smooth muscles. vasoconstriction Angiotensin II secretion: Decreased flow of filtrate in kidney tubule is sensed by the Juxtaglomerular apparatus (a small organ located in the tubule) secretion of renin Renin activates angiotensinogen, a protein synthesized by the liver and circulating in the blood angiotensin I Angiotensin I is activated by a lung enzyme, Angiotensin-Activating Enzyme (ACE), angiotensin II Angiotensin II is a powerful vasoconstricted of blood vessel smooth muscles

Angiotensin II promotes
-

Control of blood volume

Anti-diuretic hormone = ADH

- Secreted by the posterior pituitary in response to blood osmolarity (often due to dehydration) - Promote water reabsorption by the kidney tubules H2O moves back into the blood less urine formed

Control of blood volume

Aldosterone:
- Secretion by the adrenal cortex triggered by angiotensin II
- Promotes sodium reabsorption by the kidney tubules (Na+ moves back into the blood)

- H2O follows by osmosis

- Whereas ADH promotes H2O reabsorption only (in response to dehydration), aldosterone promotes reabsorption of both H2O and salt (in response to BP)

Hormones and cardiovascular regulation

Erythropoietin released if BP falls or O2 levels are abnormally low Erythropoietin ultimately increases blood volume and improves O2 delivery Natriuretic peptides released in response to excessive right atrial stretch i.e. when BP is high

The Regulation of Blood Pressure and Blood Volume

The Regulation of Blood Pressure and Blood Volume

More cells

constriction of blood vessel walls