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TRANSDUCERS
TRANSDUCERS
Its a device which convert one form of energy to another form Non electrical quantity is converted into an electrical form by a transducer. Another name is pick up
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The electrical output can be easily used , transmitted and processed for the purpose of measurement. Telemetry (aerospace remote indication / recording) Miniaturization on account of use of ICs.
Classification of Transducers
On the basis of transduction form used. As primary and secondary transducers As passive and active transducer. As analog and digital transducer. As transducers and inverse transducers.
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Passive Transducer: Also known as externally powered transducers, i.e., derive the power required for energy conversion from an external power source. e.g. POT (Potentiometer)-used for the measurement of displacement .
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Digital Transducer: Converts input quantity into an electrical output which is in the form of pulse.
Input Characteristics
Type of Input and Operating Range Loading effect. Type of Input :The type of input, which can be any physical quantity, is generally determined in advance . Operating Range : Choice of transducer depends upon the useful range of input quantity.
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Loading Effect : The transducer, that is selected for a particular application should ideally exact NO force, power or energy from the quantity under measurement in order that is measured accurately.
Output Characteristics
Type of Electrical Output. Output Impedance Useful Range.
Output Impedance
Ideally the value of output impedance should be zero if no loading effects are there on the subsequent stage. Since zero output impedance is not possible , it should be kept as low as possible, since it determines the amount of power that can be transferred to the succeeding stages of the instrumentation system.
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8. Loading effects. 9. Environmental compatibility 10. Insensitivity to unwanted signals 11. Usage and Ruggedness 12. Electrical aspects 13. Stability and Reliability 14. Static characteristics.
1. Operating Principle: The transducer are many times selected on the basis of operating principle used by them. The operating principle used may be resistive, inductive, capacitive , optoelectronic, piezo electric etc. 2. Sensitivity: The transducer must be sensitive enough to produce detectable output. 3. Operating Range: The transducer should maintain the range requirement and have a good resolution over the entire range.
4. Accuracy: High accuracy is assured. 5. Cross sensitivity: It has to be taken into account when measuring mechanical quantities. There are situation where the actual quantity is being measured is in one plane and the transducer is subjected to variation in another plan. 6. Errors: The transducer should maintain the expected input-output relationship as described by the transfer function so as to avoid errors.
7. Transient and frequency response : The transducer should meet the desired time domain specification like peak overshoot, rise time, setting time and small dynamic error. 8. Loading Effects: The transducer should have a high input impedance and low output impedance to avoid loading effects.
9. Environmental Compatibility: It should be assured that the transducer selected to work under specified environmental conditions maintains its input- output relationship and does not break down. 10. Insensitivity to unwanted signals: The transducer should be minimally sensitive to unwanted signals and highly sensitive to desired signals.
11. Usage and Ruggedness: The ruggedness both of mechanical and electrical intensities of transducer versus its size and weight must be considered while selecting a suitable transducer. 12. Electrical aspects: The electrical aspects that need consideration while selecting a transducer include the length and type of cable required. 13. Stability and Reliability : The transducer should exhibit a high degree of stability to be operative during its operation and storage life.
14. Static Characteristics :Apart from low static error, the transducer should have a low non- linearity, low hysteresis, high resolution and a high degree of repeatability.
Resistive Transducers
R
Any method of varying one of the quantities involved in the above relationship can be the design basis of an electrical resistive transducer. The translational and rotational potentiometers which work on the basis of change in the value of resistance with change in length of the conductor can be used for measurement of translational or rotary displacement.
Strain gauge work on the principle that the resistance of the conductor or a semiconductor changes when strained. This property can be used for measurement of displacement, force and pressure. The resistivity of the material changes with change of temperature thus causing a change of resistance. This property may be used for measurement of temperature.
Potentiometers
POT Resistive potentiometer used for the purposes of voltage division is called POT. Resistive potentiometer consist of a resistive element provided with a sliding contact. Sliding Contact-Wiper
POT
Its a Passive Transducer. Linear Pot Translational Motion Rotary Pot-Rotational Motion Helipots- Combination of the two motions (translational as well as rotational). In Electrical Measurement , Standard potentiometer are used to measure the unknown voltage by comparing it with a standard known voltage.
Resistive potentiometer
Strain Gauges
If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed , its resistance changes on account of the fact that both length and diameter of conductor change. Also there is a change in the value of resistivity of the conductor when strained and this property is called piezoresistive effect. Resistive strain gauges are also known as piezoresistive gauges.
Used almost exclusively in transducer applications. At initial preload , the strains and resistances of the four arms are normally equal, with the result the output voltage of the bridge, e0=0. Application of pressure produces a small displacement , the displacement increases tension in 2 wires and decreasing the resistance of the remaining 2 wires. This causes an unbalance of the bridge producing an output voltage which is proportional to the input displacement and hence to the applied pressure.
It consist of a grid of fine resistance wire of diameter of about 0.025mm. The wire is cemented to a base. The base thin sheet of paper or bakelite. Wire is covered with a thin sheet of material so that it is not damaged mechanically. The spreading of wire permits a uniform distribution of stress over a grid.
The bonded metal wire strain gauge have been completely superseded by bonded foil strain gauge.
The semiconductor strain gauge depends for their action upon piezo resistive effect. i.e. the change in the value of the resistance due to change in resistivity.
Rosettes
Thermistors
thermal - resistors It is composed of semiconductor materials. Used in applications which involve measurements in the range of -60oC to 15oC The resistance of thermistors ranges from 0.5ohm to 0.75 mega ohm
Thermistors
Composed of sintered mixture of metallic oxides such as manganese, nickel , cobalt, copper, iron and uranium.
Thermocouple
When two metals having different work functions are placed together, a voltage is generated at the junction which is nearly proportional to the temperature. This junction is called a thermocouple.
N2 N 2A A InductanceL N 2 N 2G l A l l A geometric form factor l A Area of crosssection of coil; m 2 l length of coil; m permeability whereG
LVDT
A movable soft iron is placed inside the former. The displacement to be measured is applied to the arm attached to the soft iron core. Since the primary winding is excited by an alternating magnetic field which in turn induces alternating current voltages in the secondary windings. The output voltage of secondary , S1is Es1 and that of secondary, S2is Es2
Capacitive Transducer
The Principle of operation of capacitive transducer is based upon the familiar equation for capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor.
C
d where
r o A
d
Photoconductive cells
Electrode
Base pin
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Ceramic substrate
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