PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon

Department of Petroleum Technology, University of Karachi

 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon

Department of Petroleum Technology, University of Karachi

 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
The Story of Oil in Pennsylvania
• The most important oil well ever drilled was in the middle
of quiet farm country in northwestern Pennsylvania in
1859.

• This was one of the first successful oil wells that was
drilled for the sole purpose of finding oil.

• Known as the Drake Well, after "Colonel" Edwin Drake, the

man responsible for the well, it began an international
search for petroleum, and in many ways eventually
changed the way we live.

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 PET—631 Origin of
PET—631Generation of Oil and Gas
Hydrocarbon
Organic (bionic) or Inorganic (abionic)Theory.
• There are two theories of origin:
• Organic (bionic) or Inorganic (abionic).

• Inorganic
• Early theories postulated an inorganic origin when it became apparent
that there were widespread deposits of petroleum throughout the
world.

• Dmitri Mendele'ev (1877), a Russian and the father of the periodic table
of elements, reasoned that

metallic carbides deep within Earth reacted with water at high

temperatures to form acetylene (C2H2) which subsequently condensed
to form heavier hydrocarbons.

• This reaction is readily reproduced in the laboratory.

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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Inorganic Theory Continue

• Berthelot, 1860 and Mendele'ev, 1902 theorized that the

mantle contained

iron carbide which would react with percolating water to

form methane:

FeC2 + 2H2O = CH4 + FeO2

• The problem was and still is the lack of evidence for the
existence of iron carbide in the mantle.

• These theories are referred to as the deep-seated

terrestrial hypothesis.

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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Inorganic Theory Continue

• Another inorganic hypothesis was suggested by Sokoloff

(1890) who proposed a cosmic origin.
His theory was such as

hydrocarbons precipitated as rain from original nebular

matter from which the solar system was formed and then
ejected from earth's interior onto surface rocks.

• This theory and others like it are referred to as the

extraterrestrial hypothesis

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 PET—631 Origin ofofOil
PET—631Generation and Gas
Hydrocarbon
• Questions against Inorganic Origin
• Commercial accumulations are restricted to sedimentary
basins,

• petroleum seeps and accumulations are absent from

igneous and metamorphic rocks, and

• gas chromatography can fingerprint the organic matter in

shales that found in the adjacent pool.

• Thus current theory holds that most petroleum is formed

by the thermal maturation of organic matter.

• An Organic Origin generated the vast reserves (pools) of

oil and gas.

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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon

Organic Hypothesis - Summary .

• The organic theory became the accepted theory about
the turn of the century as the oil and gas industry began
to fully develop and geologists were exploring for new
deposits.

• Simply stated, the organic theory holds that the carbon

and hydrogen necessary for the formation of oil and gas
were derived from early marine life forms living on the
Earth during the geologic past -- primarily marine plankton.

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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Organic Hypothesis:

• There are a number of compelling reasons that support an

organic development hypothesis.

• First and foremost, is the

• carbon-hydrogen-organic matter connection.

• Carbon and Hydrogen are the primary constituents of

organic material, both plant and animal.

• Moreover, carbon, hydrogen, and hydrocarbons are

continually produced by the life processes of plants and
animals.

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 PET—631Generation
PET—631 Origin ofof
OilHydrocarbon
and Gas
• Second were observations dealing with the chemical
characteristics of petroleum reservoirs.

• Nitrogen and porphyrins (chlorophyll derivatives in plants,

blood derivatives in animals) are found in all organic
matter; they are also found in many petroleum.

• Presence of porphyrins also mean that anaerobic

conditions must have developed early in the formation
process because porphyrins are easily and rapidly
oxidized and decompose under aerobic conditions.

• Additionally, low Oxygen content also implies a reducing

environment.
• Thus there is a high probability that petroleum originates
within an anaerobic and reducing environment.

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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon

Third were observations dealing with the physical characteristics.

• Nearly all petroleum occurs in sediments that are primarily of

marine origin.

• Petroleum contained in non-marine sediments probably migrated

into these areas from marine source materials located nearby.

• Furthermore, temperatures in the deeper petroleum reservoirs

seldom exceed 300oF (141oC) .

• But temperatures never exceeded 392oF (200oC) where porphyrins

are present because they are destroyed above this temperature.

• Therefore the origin of petroleum is most likely a low-temperature

phenomenon.

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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
PREREQUISITES FOR HYDROCARBON ACCUMULATION
• The accumulation of
hydrocarbons and
formation of oil or gas
deposit involve certain
prerequisites.
• These are the following:
• 1. Source Rock
• 2. Reservoir Rock
• 3. Trap
• 4. Seal
• 5. Timing
• 6. Migration

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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
HYDROCARBON SYSTEM
Step 1 -
Energy Capture
Step 2 - Source Sediments
Step 3- Sediment Maturation

Step 4 - Reservoir Rock

Step 5 - Traps

Step 6 - Seal/Trap Rock

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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Energy Capture
• Diatoms float in the top few meters of the oceans and also happen to
be a major source of food for many forms of ocean swimmers.
• Their skeletons are chemically very similar to sand - in fact, they are
made of the same material (silica).

• Diatoms produce a kind

• of oil by themselves – both
• to store chemical energy
• from photosynthesis and
• to increase their ability to
• float.
• But this small amount of
• oil still needs to become
• concentrated and mature
• before it can be taken from
• the ground and used as
• fuel oil.
Department
DEPARTMENT OF of Petroleum
PETROLEUM Technology,
TECHNOLOGY University
UNIVERSITYof
OF Karachi
KARACHI
 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Energy Capture

• There are more than 200 genera of living diatoms, and it is estimated
that there are approximately 100,000 extant species.

• Diatoms are a widespread group and can be found in the oceans, in

freshwater, in soils and on damp surfaces.

• Most live pelagically in open water, although some live as surface films
at the water-sediment interface (benthic), or even under damp
atmospheric conditions.

• They are especially important in oceans, where they are estimated to

contribute up to 45% of the total oceanic primary production.

• Although usually microscopic, some species of diatoms can reach up

to 2 millimetres in length.

DEPARTMENT OF of
Department Petroleum
PETROLEUM Technology, University
TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITYof
OF Karachi
KARACHI
 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Source Sediments
• Since almost all oil comes from rocks that were formed underwater,
floating ocean life (tiny, tiny creatures known as diatoms, foraminifera,
and radiolarians –

• all just as small as a grain of sand) that settle to the bottom of the sea
is what eventually turns into oil.

• How could something so small give us so much oil?

•
• Well, it takes many thousands of years (and millions of millions dead
critters) to form thick deposits of organic-rich sludge at the bottom of
the ocean.

DEPARTMENT OF of
Department Petroleum
PETROLEUM Technology, University
TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITYof
OF Karachi
KARACHI
 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Step 1 - Energy Capture

• In fact, most scientists agree that oil

comes from creatures the size of a
pinhead.
• These one-celled creatures, known as
diatoms, aren't really plants, but share
one very important characteristic with
them –
• they take light from the sun and convert
it into energy.
( PHOTSYNTHESIS )
–Side view of a typical diatom, the energy-trapping
organism generally thought to be the origin of oil.

DEPARTMENT OF of
Department Petroleum
PETROLEUM Technology, University
TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITYof
OF Karachi
KARACHI
 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
PET—631 Photosynthesis
• Photosynthesis is a process of taking inroganic material
to make new organic matter through the combining of
carbon dioxide and water using solar energy.
• This process only occurs in green plants, blue-green algae,
and certain bacteria.

Department
DEPARTMENT OF of Petroleum
PETROLEUM Technology,
TECHNOLOGY University
UNIVERSITYof
OF Karachi
KARACHI
 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
How does photosynthesis occur?
Water is taken in through the roots of the plant and
transported to the leaves by the xylem (tubes that carry
water) in the stems.

• Carbon dioxide animals breathe out from the

air goes into the leaves through the tiny pores
called stomata and is spreads to the cells that
contain chlorophyll in the inside layer of the
leaf.

• Sunlight is used to break down the water in

the plant into oxygen, which the plant gives
off and we use to breathe.

• The hydrogen is then used with the carbon

dioxide to create the food for the plants and
ultimately food for animals as well.

DEPARTMENT OF of
Department Petroleum
PETROLEUM Technology, University
TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITYof
OF Karachi
KARACHI
 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Photosynthesis

• Department of Petroleum Technology, University of Karachi

 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Aerobic and Anaerobic Condition
• Aerobic • Anaerobic
• Oxygen • No oxygen
• No odor • Odors arise
• Clear water • Water turns black
• Fish thrive • Fish die
• Sludge degrades • Sludge builds-up
• Controlled algae growth • Uncontrolled algae
growth

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 PET—631Generation
PET—631 Origin ofof
OilHydrocarbon
and Gas

• Anaerobic conditions are synonymous with dead or dying conditions.

•
Dead water cannot support diverse animal or plant life, and septic conditions arise
creating toxic gases and solutions from decaying organic matter.

• As water becomes anaerobic it more readily dissolves precipitates such as Phosphorous

providing an increase of nutrients in solution.

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 PET—631 Origin ofof
PET—631Generation OilHydrocarbon
and Gas

• This increase in nutrients promotes the growth of algae and weeds which in
turn die off and further contribute to sludge build-up.
• Anaerobic conditions facilitate an endless cycle of propagation and
accumulation of organic matter without any beneficial degradation.
• The sludge layer continually increases producing black and smelly waters.
•
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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Formation
All fossil fuels, whether ofliquid,
solid, Hydrocarbon
or gas, are the result of
organic material being covered by successive layers of
sediment over the course of millions of years.

Some deposits of coal can be found during the time of the

dinosaurs.

For example, thin carbon layers can be found during the late
Cretaceous Period (65 million years ago) - the time of
Tyrannosaurus Rex.

But the main deposits of fossil fuels are from the

Carboniferous Period.

Fossil fuels supply over 80% of the world’s energy needs.

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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon

Department of Petroleum Technology, University of Karachi

 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Marine Ecosystems:
• Simple photosynthesizing Algae are the primary
organic carbon producers in the world’s oceans,
are the start of a complex food chain.
• Phytoplanktons are responsible for over 90% of
supply of OM (organic Matter) in the world’s ocean.

• The Phytoplankton group includes the “Diatoms”,

Dinoflagellates”, “Blue-Green Algae” and
“Nannoplankton”.

• According to Romankevich(1984), only a small

percentage (o.4%) out of 26.6 x 10 tons/year of OC
(organic carbon) in the world’s seas and oceans is
transferred to and preserved in sea bottom sediment.
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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Marine Ecosystems

• Apart from phytoplankton, other organisms such

as “ Zooplankton” , “Benthos organism” ,
“Bacteria” , and “Fish “ may also be important
elements of the biomass.

• The main function of the bacteria is to break down

dead (OM) organic matter, but the bacteria may
themselves also contribute to the organic content
of the sediment.

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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Geographical Variation in Phytoplankton
• The open ocean accounts for a large percentage of the OC
(Organic Carbon) produced; the concentration of OC/m in
open ocean water is relatively low.

• In contrast, the continental shelves are very rich,

particularly in some specific environments of enhanced
organic activity such as the Algally-dominated inter-tidal
zone and in Reefs and Estuaries.

• Upwelling Zones are also areas of relatively high organic

productivity.

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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Sediment Maturation
• It is believed that high
heat & intense
pressure help along
various chemical
reactions,
transforming the soft
parts of ancient
organisms found in
the deep-sea sludge
into oil &natural gas.
• At this point, this ooze
at the bottom of the
ocean turns into
source rock.

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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
HOW OIL AND GAS ARE CREATED
• Crude is associated mainly
with sedimentary rocks
deposited in the marine
environment.

• These deposits indicate that

high productivity of organic
carbon is important and
contain many fossil
microorganisms like diatoms
and radiolarians.

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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Organic-rich mud and silt
• Successive layers of organic-rich mud and silt covered preceding
layers of organic rich sediments and over time created layers on the
sea floor rich in the fossil remains of previous life (Fig. 3).
• Thermal maturation processes (decay, heat, pressure) slowly
converted the organic matter into oil and gas.

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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Thermal maturation processes
• Add additional geologic time (millions of years) and the
organic rich sediments were converted into layers of
rocks.
• Add more geologic time and the layers were deformed,
buckled, broken, and uplifted; the liquid petroleum flowed
upward through porous rock until it became trapped and
could flow no further forming the oil and gas that we
explore for at present (Fig. 4).

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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Marine and Lacustrine Environment

Anoxic bottom waters are required for organic rich sediments to be preserved
Otherwise the organic matter just feeds other critters, or bacteria.

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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Trends in organic productivity:
• Primary productivity
decreases from
coastal/marine shelf into open
ocean.

• Mid-Latitude humid and

equatorial latitudes are more
productive than tropical
latitudes.

• Lowest productivity is in
polar and arid tropical areas.

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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Organic matter

Department of Petroleum Technology, University of Karachi

 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
High productivity

Plate tectonics creates areas that are ideal for oil

accumulation. High productivity, especially along continental
coasts, is ideal.

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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Kind of Organic matter
• Lipids are organic molecules • Lignin
that are insoluble in water and is one of the main constituents
other polar solvents.
of the cell walls of woody plants
and a large contributor to soil
• Lipids are readily soluble in or-ganic matter.
nonpolar solvents, such as
chloroform, benzene, and ether.
• • Lignin
• Lipids include fats and oils is generally believed to be
(important as energy storage relatively resistant against
compounds), phospholipids and microbial decomposition
glycolipids (part of the structure and that lignin residues
of cell membranes), waxes contribute significantly to
(protective surface coatings on
the large stock of old, only
many plants and animals), and
slowly de-gradable organic
steroids (found in some cell
membranes and many matter in the soil
hormones).

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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Origin of Source Rocks
Requirements for High Organic • Organic Matter
Productivity • • Proteins
• • Light (for photosynthesis) • • Carbohydrates (sugars, starch,
• • Temperature cellulose)
• • Nutrients • • Lipids (oils, fats) More resistant to decay
• • Low turbidity • • Lignin (in plants) More resistant to decay
• • Phytoplankton (Photosynthesizing • • HC generation is limited by available
algae) 90% of Organic Matter in Oceans • H (reducing environment)
• • Bacteria, zooplankton, fish, etc

• How Good Source Rocks Form: • Areas of High Productivity

• 1. Sedimentation in areas of high • • At boundaries between polar and
organic productivity temperate regions
• 2. Preservation of organic matter in • • West side of continents
sediment • • In the upper 100m

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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
The factors controlling organic productivity
• Sunlight:
• The zone of highest productivity is the top 200
meters of the world’s seas, especially the upper 60-8-
meters. This zone is also called Photic zone.
• Nutrient Supply:
• Nutrients, particularly “Nitrates” and “Phosphates,
are required to sustain high organic productivity.
These are supply by water circulation.
• Stagnant seas are not very productive.
• Nutrient supply is also locally increased in areas of
large river input and coastal abrasion.
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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
The factors controlling organic productivity
• Turbidity:
• The state, condition, or quality of opaqueness or reduced clarity
of a fluid, due to the presence of suspended matter.
• Productivity is limited in areas with turbid coastal waters.
• Salinity:
• The total quantity of dissolved salts in sea water, measured by
weight in parts per thousand, with the following qualifications:
• All the carbonates has been converted to oxide, all the
bromide and iodide to chloride, and all the organic matter
has been completely oxidized.
• Extremes of salinity (high or low) reduce the diversity of
species present, though the productivity of certain groups may
still be very high.

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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
The factors controlling organic productivity
• Temperature:

• Temperature also influences the composition of the

phytoplankton population, rather than net productivity.
• Dinoflagelates, require high water temperatures of > 25 C*.
• Diatoms and Radiolarians prefer 5-15C*.

• Note:

• The critical factors for source bed development are the

deposition and preservation of (OM) organic matter in
significant quantities in sediments, rather than productivity.

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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Dead Organism

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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Maturation of organic matter

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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Kind of Organic matter
Carbohydrates Proteins
are the main energy-storage are complex, specialized
molecules in most organisms. molecules composed of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.
They are also important Many proteins also contain
structural components for many sulfur.
organisms.
The building blocks of proteins
The building blocks of are the amino acids.
carbohydrates are small There are twenty different amino
molecules called sugars, acids commonly found in
composed of carbon, hydrogen proteins.
and oxygen.
All of these amino acids have a
Carbohydrates are classified similar structure.
according to the number of
sugar molecules they contain,
such as glucose, fructose,
ribose, and galactose,
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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Sedimentation Rate

As the rate of the sedimentation increases,

the TOC (Total Organic Carbon) content of
the sedimentation also increases because
the sediment passes more rapidly through the
near-surface zone in which the intense
microbial degradation of the OM (Organic
Matter) would take place.

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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Comparison of effects of sedimentation rates on the
preservation and maturation of organic matter
Zone Rate of Sedimentation
Prospect

Aerobic Zone Very Slow Sedimentation All organic destroyed Zero

Sulfate Reduction Slow sedimentation Massive modification Poor

Sulfides and Carbonates
Fermentation Zone Intermediate rates Significant modification Fair
of organic matter Carbonates
Thermal Saturation Fairly Rapid Sedimentation organic matter little Good
Zone affected by Aerobic and sulfate reduction zone

Liquid Hydrocarbon Very rapid Sedimentation Liquid Hydrocarbon

Window may be destroyed Uncertain
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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Sediment Maturation

• In petroleum geology, the maturity of a rock is a measure

of its state in terms of hydrocarbon generation.

• Maturity is established using a combination of

geochemical and basin modelling techniques.

• Organic-rich rocks (termed source rocks) will alter under

increasing temperature such that the organic molecules
slowly mature into hydrocarbons (see diagenesis).
• .

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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Sediment Maturation
• Source rocks are therefore broadly categorised as
• immature (no hydrocarbon generation),

• sub-mature (limited hydrocarbon generation),

• mature (extensive hydrocarbon generation)

• overmature (most hydrocarbons have been generated).

• The maturity of a source rock can also be used as an

indicator of its hydrocarbon potential.

• That is, if a rock is sub-mature, then it has a much higher

potential to generate further hydrocarbons than one that is
overmature.
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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Crude oil, tar, and natural gas Composition

• Element crude % weigh tar(asphalt) natural gas

• Carbon 82.2-87.1 80-85 65-80

• Hydrogen 11.7-14.7 8.5-11 1-25

• sulfur. 1-5.5 2-8 trace-.2

• nitrogen. 1-1.5 0-2 1-15

• oxygen. 1-4.5 - -

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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Conversion of organic Matter

• Low-temperature chemical and biological reactions (called

digenesis) that occur during transport to and early burial in
the depositional environment modify this organic matter.

• Many of the chemical compounds present in sediments are

in fact derived from bacteria, and were formed as dead
organic matter was converted to microbial tissues.

• Most of this organic matter is transformed during

digenesis info very large molecules, the largest of which
are called kerogen.

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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon

Transformation of organic matter

• Heat combined with increased pressure aids the

transformation of organic matter into petroleum products.

• But too much heat or too much pressure can prevent any
oil from forming.

• Many geologists use petroleum formation to guide them on

how much heat was in an area.

• For example, if oil is found, the temperature never

exceeded 200E C or (392E F).
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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon

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PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Carbon Cycle
 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Fate of Organic Matter in Oceans

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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Conversion of Organic matter

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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Kerogene Classification

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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Kinds of Kerogene

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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Type of Kerogene

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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Formation of Hydrocarbon
• Formation of Hydrocarbons and
Hydrocarbon Reservoirs/Traps.

• Diagenesis.
• Biogenic decomposition produces biogenic
methane. At slightly higher temperatures and
pressures the organic matter is converted to
kerogen - an amorphous material of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen.

• Catagenesis.
• At higher temperatures and pressures
kerogen is altered and the majority of crude
oil is formed. During this phase and the next,
the larger molecules break down into simpler
molecules (a process called cracking).

• Metagenesis.
• In the final stage of alteration (at higher
temperatures and pressures) of kerogen and
crude oil, natural gas (mostly methane) is
produced and residual carbon is left in the
source rock

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 PET—631Generation of Hydrocarbon
Figure 1. Diagrammatic illustration of kerogen composition, which leads to oil
and gas formation directly from kerogen cracking and gas from oil cracking.

Department of Petroleum Technology, University of Karachi