Fundamentals of Steam Turbines

Definition of Turbine
Machines in which the kinetic energy of a moving fluid is converted to mechanical power by the impulse or reaction of the fluid with a series of buckets, paddles, or blades arrayed about the circumference of a wheel or cylinder. The term "turbine" was coined by professor Claude Burdin; he derived the term from turbo, a spinning object.

History of Turbines
A water, or hydraulic, turbine is used to drive electric generators in hydroelectric power stations. The first such station was built in Wisconsin in 1882(the Pelton wheel, the Francis turbine, and the Kaplan turbine) Toward the end of the 19th cent. two engineers, Sir Charles A. Parsons of Great Britain and Carl G. P. de Laval of Sweden, were pioneers in the building of steam turbines.

Theory of Operation
A working fluid contains potential energy (pressure head) and kinetic energy (velocity head). The fluid may be compressible or non-compressible. Several physical principles are employed by turbines to collect this energy;

Impulse Turbine
Impulse turbines change the direction of flow of a high velocity fluid jet. The resulting impulse spins the turbine and leaves the fluid flow with diminished kinetic energy. There is no pressure change of the fluid in the turbine blades. Pressure head is changed to velocity head by focusing the fluid with a nozzle, prior to hitting the turbine blades. Pelton wheels and de Laval turbines use this concept. Impulse turbines do not require a pressure casement around the runner, since the fluid jet is prepared by a nozzle prior to hitting the turbine. Newton's second law describes the transfer of energy for impulse turbines.

Reaction Turbine
Reaction turbines develop torque by reacting to the fluid's
pressure or weight. The pressure of the fluid changes as it passes through the turbine. A pressure casement is needed to contain the working fluid as it acts on the turbine runner, or the turbine must be fully immersed in the fluid flow (wind turbines). The casing contains and directs the working fluid, and for water turbines maintain suction imparted by the draft tube. Francis turbines and most steam turbines use this concept. For compressible working fluids, multiple turbine stages may by used to efficiently harness the expanding gas. Newton's third law describes the transfer of energy for reaction turbines.

Types of Steam Turbines

G- Back Pressure EG-Extraction Back Pressure HG-High Pressure,High Temp ,back pressure HG-High Pressure,High Temp ,high speed,back pressure K-Condensing EK-Extraction Condensing EHNK- High Pressure,High Temp ,high speed,extractioncondensing NK-High speed condensing WK-Low Pressure Condensing

Parts of Steam Turbine

Casing Rotor Guide Blades Moving Blades Governing Valves ESV Bearings

Speed Governor Labyrinth Seal Protection Systems Steam Strainer

De Laval Impulse Turbine-Single Stage

This system is often found as the first stage of a HP turbine were a large pressure drop is required to allow for a smaller turbine. The steam leaving the blades has a high kinetic energy indicating high leaving loss.

Pressure Compounding (Rateau)

The overall heat and pressure drop is divided between the stages. The U/Ci ratio is 0.5 for each stage. Nozzle and/or blade angles may be altered to accommodate the increase in volume reducing the requirement to increase blade height excessively.This is referred to as taper-twisting

Velocity Compounded (Curtis)

There is no pressure drop except in the nozzle ( although in practice some drop occurs due to losses as the steam passes over the blade).

Theoretically efficiency is independent of the row number. However in practice efficiency and work done in final stages reduces and therefore overall efficiency drops with increase rows.

Typical values for efficiency are

two wheel curtis 68%

three wheel curtis 50%

Single wheel rateau 85%

Pressure-Velocity Compound
This system gives the advantage of producing a shortened rotor compared to pure velocity compounding. In addition it also removes the problem of very high inlet steam velocities and the reduction in efficiency and work done in the final stages.

Parsons Impulse-Reaction
A velocity compounded wheel is often used as the first stage(s) giving a large drop in conditions allowing simpler construction of casing and rotor and reducing length. Special steels are limited to the nozzle box.

Dummy piston arrangement on Parsons Turbines

In parsons reaction turbines there is always an end thrust due to the steam at inlet being higher than the exhaust. This leads to high thrust bearing loading. The dummy piston arrangement is a wheel or drum integral to the rotor. Forces are balanced by the drum offering a greater surface area to the low pressure balancing steam than to the HP steam.

Impulse blading system design

Maximum blade efficiency is when entrance angle is at 0o and when the blade is rotating at 1/2 the speed of the jet stream
Maximum blade efficiency 14o to 20o

Properties required of the blade material

Good tensile and fatigue strength
Toughness and ductility at working temperature Resistance to corrosion and erosion

Rate of expansion similar to both rotor and casing

Machinability Low density Good creep resistance Good vibration dampening properties

Weldability

Typical blade material 11.5 to 13.5% Chromium

1% Nickel 1% Manganese 1% Silicon 0.12% Carbon

Trace Sulphur & phosphorus

Nozzle plate and Boxes

The nozzles may be formed by machining of the nozzle plate, or by casting in steel partition plates. Alternately, nozzles may be fabricated of vanadium-molybdenum steel and welded into segments. These may be fitted into the nozzle box which is welded to the turbine casing.

Blade Sealing

Gland Steam System

Gland steam is given inorder to maintain vacuum during shutdown At full load only exhaust end gland steam is sufficient

Labyrinth Seals
Within the cavity where the flow is turbulent, the velocity of the steam is increased with an associated drop in pressure.
The kinetic energy is then dissipated by the change in direction, turbulence and eddy currents.

P3 < P2 < P1

Rotor

Rotors are solid forged providing

1.Homogenous rotor with even grain flow

2.Even expansion 3.Good thermal stability with less likelihood of distortion under high temperatures 4. Material ( up to 566oC ) 0.27 - 0.37% Carbon 1.0% Manganese 0.04% Sulphur 0.2% Silicon 1.0% Chromium 0.5% Nickel 1.5% Molybdenum 0.3% Vanadium

Relative volumes of steam in HP and LP turbines

The increase in volume of the steam in the HP turbine is moderate, The increase in the LP turbine is significant requiring blade height to be increased in successive stages.

Rotor

Governing System

Operation of Governing Valve

Steam leakage past the side of the main valve trim pressurises the top of the valve and holds it tight on to the seat.
A steam strainer if fitted to remove any large particles such as scale, magnetite flakes etc. traveling on to the turbine.

The conical seat and spherical valve trim shape ensures tightness. The seat is shaped to ensure that there is no velocity increase which is associated with the pressure drop leading to
losses. While opening the pilot opens equalising the pressure in balance chamber and then when servo motor further opens the pilot stem lifts the main valve.

Sequential control - Bar lift type

The valves are operated by the lifting of a beam or bar, which is connected via a servo to the governor. Sequential control is gained by the adjusting of the height the bar must lift before contacting with the valve spindle nut; each valve, by adjustment of its spindle nut will start to open at varying bar lift. Steam flow to the nozzles is at a maximum with little throttling effect.

Governing Mechanism

Overload
For overload conditions in excess of normal a bypass v/v may be fitted which admits steam a number of stages down from the HP inlet.By introducing the low specific volume steam further down where the nozzle area are greater allows more steam flow.

Casing
The casing is made of four main parts Bottom Half-If all the nozzles are contained in the top half, then the bottom half is subject to steam at wheel case pressure and temperature only and can therefore be made of cast iron. >Thrust bearing housing Front Journal bearing Rear gland housing Rear Journal bearing Flexible coupling housing Nozzle box-Contains ahead nozzle, subjected to boiler pressure and temperature hence made from cast steel Turbine casing cover- Subjected to reduced pressure and temperature and can therefore be made of cast iron

Expansion arrangements
Allowance for expansion over the temperature range in which the turbines operate is essential to reduce thermal stress, mechanical stress and maintain proper tooth contact and blade clearance. This is acheived by securing the turbine at one end and allowing to expand. The free end is normally the hotter end of the turbine where expansion is expected to be greatest. The turbine is rigidly attached to the Rear pedestal. The front end is allowed to expand.

Labyrinth Seals

Thrust Bearing
The thrust bearing is placed at the inlet end of the turbine casing as this is the hottest end and hence the most effected by differential turbine/casing expansion. This helps to prevent damage to the glands and also allows the use of reduced clearances, necessary as the specific volume of the steam is at its highest

Modern Self Aligning

Mitchell tilting pad bearings are commonly used due to their self aligning properties.
The pads are formed initially as a single ring then machined to requirements. This is why all pads must be changed following failure

Problems caused by incorrect warming through

The main object of warming through is to ensure straightness of the rotor.To do this a negligible temperature gradient must exist
throughout the rotor. To prevent distortion of the casing and to remove condensate from the turbine casing. To prevent thermal stresses caused by the temperature gradient in thick materials such as at the bolt flanges.