Fundamentals of Material Properties

- Part 3Non-Metallic Materials for Manufacturing

Darrell Wallace Youngstown State University Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

January 14, 2006

Youngstown State University

2

Non-Metals in Manufacturing

Long History

Organics

Wooden Tools Textiles Rope Pottery

Ceramics

Very Different Properties from Metals Some Overlap of Processes Key to many cutting edge manufacturing processes
Youngstown State University
3

Ceramics

What is a ceramic?

Narrow Definition:

A compound composed of both metallic and nonmetallic components Everything that is not a metal or organic and that is subjected to very high temperature during manufacture or use.

Broader Definition:

Youngstown State University

Where do we find Ceramics?

Naturally Occuring:

Silica SiO2 Silicates SiO4

Oxides

Man-Made

Carbides Nitrides

Youngstown State University

Bonding and Structure

Ceramic materials are predominantly bound by covalent and ionic bonds

Youngstown State University

Covalent Bonds in Ceramics

Covalent Bonds - Electrons are shared by adjacent atoms

Very Strong Has associated directionality Significant factor in atomic spacing and crystalline structure

Associated Characteristics

High melting point, strength, brittleness and hardness Low thermal expansion, thermal and electrical conductivity

Youngstown State University

Ionic Bonds in Ceramics

Ionic Bonds: Electron transfer leads to ionization of atoms. Attraction based on opposing electrical charges.
Creates a smaller (denser) molecule than covalent bonding

Brittle and nonconductive at lower temperatures, but exhibits some movement of dislocations and charge carriers at elevated temperatures.
Deformation is particularly possible under elevated temperature and hydrostatic pressure Example: Na+ClYoungstown State University
8

Crystalline Structure

Most ceramics exhibit a crystalline structure in their solid state Some ceramics exhibit different crystalline structures (polymorphs) under different pressure or temperature conditions.

Changes in crystalline structure lead to changes in properties, especially density Volumetric changes tend to be more pronounced in ceramics than in allotropic metals

Ceramics that dont have a crystalline structure (amorphous) are called glasses

Youngstown State University

Glasses

Glasses are formed when a ceramic is heated above its melting point and cooled at a rate faster than the crystallization can occur. Ceramic glasses can be held at elevated temperature for extended periods to allow stable crystalline structures to form. This is called devitrification Amorphous glasses tend to be isotropic whereas crystalline ceramics can be very anisotropic.
Youngstown State University
10

Mechanical Properties of Ceramics

Ceramics are VERY sensitive to stress risers (notch sensitivity)

Material tests must take great care not to damage the surface Cracks are naturally occurring, so tests must be statistical in nature.

Ceramics are less sensitive to crack formation in compression than in tension (including bending) Excellent hot-hardness and dimensional stability
Youngstown State University

11

Improving Mechanical Properties of Ceramics

Reduce Particle Size Retard the Propagation of Large Cracks

Incorporate particles that suffer phase transformation Introduce microfractures Guide the crack propagation with fibers

Induce Compressive Residual Stresses Reduce Creep (improve hot hardness)

Youngstown State University
12

Polymers and Plastics

From the Greek: Polymer:

Poly = many Meros = parts Plastikos = able to be molded or formed

Plastic:

Most polymers are based on Carbon chains and are, therefore, organic compounds.
Youngstown State University
13

Chain Polymerization

Monomer (one part) Initiator is used to open up double bonds and allow it to bond to adjacent atoms Polymerization occurs in the entire batch almost simultaneously Most commonly forms hydrocarbon chains (aliphatic hydrocarbons) or benzene rings (aromatic hydrocarbons) Additional elements may bond covalently

in place of a carbon atom (N, O, S, P, Si) In place of a hydrogen atom (Cl, F, Br)

Some of these polymers can be recycled through a process called high-temperature cracking

Youngstown State University

14

Chain Polymerization - Polyethylene

Polyethylene Monomer

Youngstown State University

15

Step-Reaction Polymerization

Joining of two dissimilar monomers into short groups Pattern increases, usually releasing a low molecular weight byproduct (for example, water in the case of nylon-6,6) Such polymers can sometimes be recycled by depolymerization (unless cross-linked)

Youngstown State University

16

Degree of Polymerization

The polymers form lengthy chains. The length of these chains has a significant influence on mechanical properties. Measures of this characteristic include:

Molecular weight average weight in grams of 1 mole (6.02x1023 molecules) Degree of Polymerization average number of mers in a molecule

Typical degrees of polymerization range from about 700 (LDPE) to 170,000 (UHMWPE)
Youngstown State University
17

Linear Polymers (Thermoplastics)

Straight chains

Not truly straight, since bond angle of C-C bonds is 109.5 Chains twist and tangle together like sticky spaghetti Shorter chains will not develop sufficient order to create crystalline patterns, thus amorphous (simple PE has lengths of only about 18nm) Long straight chains (HDPE) may allow for more entanglement
Youngstown State University
18

Straight Chain Polymers

Youngstown State University

19

Linear Polymers (Thermoplastics)

Some polymers form pendant groups

Polypropylene (PP), for example These pendant groups grow off of the sides of the backbone of the polymer and increase tangling Such polymers are characterized by the pattern of these pendant groups.

Youngstown State University

20

Pendant-Forming Polymers

Youngstown State University

21

Naming Conventions for PendantForming Polymers

Isotactic all pendants form on one side of the molecule

Can develop highly ordered, compact, crystalline structure Wide use in engineering applications

Youngstown State University

22

Naming Conventions for PendantForming Polymers

Syndiotactic pendants alternate sides in a pattern

Youngstown State University
23

Naming Conventions for PendantForming Polymers

Atactic pendants alternate sides randomly

Tight packing is not achievable Amorphous Generally poor properties

Youngstown State University

24

Bonding Between Polymer Molecules

Entanglement (mechanical bonding)

Adds limited strength

Secondary Bonds

Van der Waals (weak) Dipole bonds (polar molecules) Hydrogen bonds (strong)

H with O, N, or F

Youngstown State University

25

Crosslinked Polymers (Thermosets)

Occurs when bonds between molecules are covalent Polymer becomes cured and process cannot be reversed
Youngstown State University
26

Characteristics of Thermosets

Strong High elastic modulus High temperature resistance Relatively brittle Bonds can only be broken by overheating, and result is burning with carbon residue Scrap cannot be recycled except as filler
Youngstown State University
27

Elastomers

Capable of elastic deformation of 200% or more

Thermoset Elastomers crosslinked amorphous linear polymers (e.g. natural rubber crosslinked with sulfer vulcanized) Thermoplastic Elastomers semi-crystalline with glassy regions

Youngstown State University

28

Fillers and Additives

Polymer properties are often enhanced by the addition of other compounds

Additives: agents designed to change properties

UV stabilization, flame retardant, plasticizers, dyes, lubricants

Add structural stability in a two-phase structure Effectively a composite material

Fillers: reinforcing agents

Youngstown State University

29

Typical Mechanical Characteristics of Polymers

Strength Stress-strain characteristics are widely varied and typically are very sensitive to temperature Range from pure elastic to nearly perfect-plastic Creep Polymers are generally susceptible to creep, especially at elevated temperatures Deflection temperature Residual Stresses Anisotropy, particularly related to thermal expansion, often leads to residual stress considerations in polymer processing Rheology Polymers can exhibit a wide range of viscosity behaviors depending on formulation and applied process
Youngstown State University
30

Polymer Rheology
Shear Stress, t

. Shear Strain rate, g

Youngstown State University
31

Composites

Two or more distinct materials combined such that the identities and properties of the constituent materials are retained. Composites are usually engineered materials Utilize materials with materials with complementary properties to compensate for weaknesses individually.
Youngstown State University

32

Matrix Composites

Matrix Material

Polymer Metal Ceramic

Embedded Material

Particulate Composites Fiber Reinforcement

Youngstown State University

33

Composites that Utilize Deliberate Orientation

Unidirectional composites

Youngstown State University

34

Composites that Utilize Deliberate Orientation

Biaxial Composite

Designed to resist stresses In two axes Not designed to be strong in the third direction
Youngstown State University
35

Composites that Utilize Deliberate Orientation

Laminate Composites

Stacks of planar material Planar subcomponents are usually varied in orientation to compensate for directionality.
Youngstown State University
36

Familiar Composites

Fiberboard, OSB, and Plywood Fiberglass Concrete / Steel-reinforced concrete Steel-belted radial tires Carbon-fiber

Bike frames, fishing poles, skis

Rice Krispy Treats

Youngstown State University
37