TR 320

Geometric Design of Highways (2 units) Lecture 2: Cross Section Design

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Objective of this Lecture

Aim of the lecture: To introduce road cross section elements, their functions and design considerations The learner should be able to: To sketch and label a typical road cross section, describe the function of each element and list the design considerations Use the knowledge to complete assignment no. 1 successfully and to criticise designs
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TR 320 - Cross Section Elements Contents

Pavement type, cross fall Lane width Pavement widening at curves Number of lanes Shoulders The roadside
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Pavement
Part of the roadway used as a travelled way May consist of:
Earth (max. permeability, max. slope) Gravel base-course/surface Gravel base (etc) with surface dressing Asphalt Concrete (AC) surface OPCC base/surface (min. permeability, min. slope)
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Pavement type is selected on the basis of:

Traffic Volume Weather/Climate Soil Type Availability of Construction Materials and Total Transport Costs *Environmental considerations depletion of gravel is increasing becoming important!
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Cross Slope
design is controlled by traffic operations and drainage considerations Big slope is better for quick drainage but camber with more than 2.5% slope creates side-sway problem if speed is more than 80 km/hr Parabolic section is better but difficult to construct
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Cross Slope .
Critical consideration on curved sections super elevation often provided for paved roads where high speed (60 km/hr or more) is expected (= outside urban areas) Different pavement types require different slopes due to differences in permeability of the pavement materials
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The surface of the pavement must have enough Skid Residence

Important to safety (Minimize skidding accidents) Critical for wet pavements: Rutting water accumulation Polishing reduces micro texture Bleeding covers micro texture Dirty cause pavement to loss skid resistance

Skid Residence
Alignment and pavement texture must be designed to produce high initial skid resistance
Reduced probability of polishing Cross slope with 2.5% slope or more reduces probability of hydroplaning Curve radius, super-elevation and max grades may be selected to minimize chances of polishing

Lane Widths - Capacity

Controls safety and comfort (LoS) to a great extent 3.0 m to 3.9m lane widths used in USA: 12ft = 3.64m is considered IDEAL lane width In Tz 3 m to 3.25 m is common on trunk roads
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Lane Widths - Capacity

3.6 m (ideal) considered better than 3.0 because of reduced maintenance costs and better operations for traffic levels > 400 vpd Capacity of a highway is affected greatly by the lane width: if 3.64 m = 100% (3,200 vph) then 3.0 m = 77% (2,464 vph)
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Pavement Widening

Vehicles occupy larger widths on curves than on tangents Amount of increase in occupation of the roadway depends on - Curve radius - Vehicles dimensions
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Pavement Widening

Curves traced by rear wheels are called swept curves Extra widening can be ignored for passenger cars on radii used on highways. See AASHTO for the estimation of amount of widening needed.
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Need for Pavement Widening depends on:

The design vehicle - HGV Frequency of meeting on curves (traffic demand) Curve radius. Speed (design or operating speed)
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What happens if curve widening is not provided?

Drivers will need to concentrate more on curves discomfort, fatigue Possible reduction in operating speed (on curves)
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Pvmt widening: Design Recommendation

If w 6.0m and HGV frequency less than 15 veh/hr. Pavement widening is not required. Pavement widening less than 0.5m not applied as this results in increase in construction costs with little gain in operational efficiency. Widening should be applied on the inside edge and be guaranteed for the whole 16 curve length

Widening Attainment on Curves How is widening applied?

Gradually - on the inside lane Usually introduced on transition length or Along Super-elevation Runoff Marked centre line on widened curve showed be placed (midway) between the pavement edges.
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How many lanes?

Number of lanes should be enough to accommodate design volumes for the selected level of service. In the HCM approach several influencing parameters are considered in the selection of number of lanes. The HCM approach is considered the best approach in terms of assessing traffic quality on the basis of the principle of level of service. Not covered in this course.
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Shoulders
Definition: a shoulder is the portion of the roadway continuous with the travelled way whose function is to provide lateral support to the base and surface course, accommodates stopped vehicles, for emergency use and sometimes for use by NMT (Non Motorised Traffic)

Width varies from 0.6 m to 3.6 m Shoulders may be paved, gravel or earth/grass

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Shoulders: Desirable features (for drainage)

Should be flash with pavement surface Sloped and drain away from the carriageway Slope from 2 6% paved > 4% - 6% gravel and for Grass up to 8% Cross slope break at super-elevated sections should be a max of 8%

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Benefits of shoulders
Space is provided for disabled vehicles and for motorists to stop when consulting road maps/directions Space for evasive manoeuvers Sense of openness provided reduce driver stress, increase SD in cuts (safety) Sometimes may improve aesthetics Encourage uniform speed and therefore capacity is increased
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Benefits of shoulders ..
Provides space for maintenance activities: storage of materials, temporary travelled way Provides lateral clearance for signs and guardrails (Road furniture) Allows storm water to be discharged further from the travelled roadway reduces seepage into the pavement base and therefore slows down deterioration
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 Structural support is given to the pavement Space provided for pedestrian and bicycle use, detouring of vehicles during reconstruction, bus stops, Usually kerbs are used in urban areas. Parking lanes may serve stalled vehicles otherwise traffic is disturbed
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Bus and other turnouts

Provide efficient and safe removal of bus from the travelled way e.g. for arterial roads provision of deceleration lanes is desirable Provide standing space to accommodate expected number of vehicles: 15 m for each bus, 3 m wide Provide convenient exit from the bus turnout
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The roadside: Horizontal Clearance of Obstructions

Clear zones provides for recovery of errant vehicles Side ditch design (slopes and shape) to facilitate Rec. e.g. AASHTO min for low speed rural roads 10ft = 3.0 m for urban kerbed roads 0.5 m
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Kerbs
Drainage control Pavement edge delineation RoW reduction (critical in urban centres) Aesthetics

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Kerbs
Delineation of pedestrian walkways Reduced maintenance operations (pvmt edge). Assistance in orderly roadside development
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Other cross section issues

Medians Roadside barriers on medians Guardrails Sidewalks Side slopes Right of Way (RoW)
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Provision for Pedestrians and other NMT

There is need to establish the demand Provide sidewalk width to meet the demand. Sometimes separate paths for pedestrians and bicycles are provided. Need for protection need to be considered (speed, environment)

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Summary: Basis for cross section (CS) design

Limited research findings Practical experience and judgement Economical and environmental assumptions Administrative requests

CS Design decisions are not wholly explained on purely scientific basis

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Thank you.

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