Chapter42 Circulation and Gas Exchange

Chapter 42
Circulation and Gas Exchange

PowerPoint Lectures for Biology, Seventh Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGY OLYMPIAD PREPARATION DWIWARNA HIGH BOARDING SCHOOL, BOGOR INSTRUCTOR: WIDIATI and SUGANDA KUSMANA CORRESPONDENCE: suganda_kusmana@yahoo.com
Lectures by Chris Romero

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Overview: Trading with the Environment Every organism must exchange materials with its environment
And this exchange ultimately occurs at the cellular level
In unicellular organisms
These exchanges occur directly with the environment
For most of the cells making up multicellular organisms

Direct exchange with the environment is not possible
The feathery gills projecting from a salmon

Are an example of a specialized exchange system found in animals
Figure 42.1
Concept 42.1: Circulatory systems reflect phylogeny Transport systems

Functionally connect the organs of exchange with the body cells
Most complex animals have internal transport systems

That circulate fluid, providing a lifeline between the aqueous environment of living cells and the exchange organs, such as lungs, that exchange chemicals with the outside environment
Invertebrate Circulation The wide range of invertebrate body size and form
Is paralleled by a great diversity in circulatory systems
Gastrovascular Cavities Simple animals, such as cnidarians

Have a body wall only two cells thick that encloses a gastrovascular cavity
The gastrovascular cavity

Functions in both digestion and distribution of substances throughout the body
Some cnidarians, such as jellies

Have elaborate gastrovascular cavities
Circular canal
Mouth
Radial canal 5 cm Figure 42.2
Open and Closed Circulatory Systems More complex animals

Have one of two types of circulatory systems: open or closed
Both of these types of systems have three basic components

A circulatory fluid (blood) A set of tubes (blood vessels)
A muscular pump (the heart)
In insects, other arthropods, and most molluscs

Blood bathes the organs directly in an open circulatory system
Heart
Hemolymph in sinuses surrounding ograns
Anterior vessel
Lateral vessels
Ostia
Figure 42.3a
Tubular heart (a) An open circulatory system
In a closed circulatory system

Blood is confined to vessels and is distinct from the interstitial fluid
Heart
Interstitial fluid
Small branch vessels in each organ
Dorsal vessel (main heart)
Auxiliary hearts
Ventral vessels
Figure 42.3b
(b) A closed circulatory system
Closed systems
Are more efficient at transporting circulatory fluids to tissues and cells
Survey of Vertebrate Circulation Humans and other vertebrates have a closed circulatory system
Often called the cardiovascular system
Blood flows in a closed cardiovascular system

Consisting of blood vessels and a two- to fourchambered heart
Arteries carry blood to capillaries

The sites of chemical exchange between the blood and interstitial fluid
Veins
Return blood from capillaries to the heart
Fishes A fish heart has two main chambers

One ventricle and one atrium
Blood pumped from the ventricle

Travels to the gills, where it picks up O2 and disposes of CO2
Amphibians Frogs and other amphibians

Have a three-chambered heart, with two atria and one ventricle
The ventricle pumps blood into a forked artery

That splits the ventricles output into the pulmocutaneous circuit and the systemic circuit
Reptiles (Except Birds) Reptiles have double circulation

With a pulmonary circuit (lungs) and a systemic circuit
Turtles, snakes, and lizards

Have a three-chambered heart
Mammals and Birds In all mammals and birds

The ventricle is completely divided into separate right and left chambers
The left side of the heart pumps and receives only oxygen-rich blood
While the right side receives and pumps only oxygen-poor blood
A powerful four-chambered heart

Was an essential adaptation of the endothermic way of life characteristic of mammals and birds
Vertebrate circulatory systems
FISHES
AMPHIBIANS
REPTILES (EXCEPT BIRDS)
MAMMALS AND BIRDS
Gill capillaries
Lung and skin capillaries
Lung capillaries
Lung capillaries
Artery
Gill circulation
Pulmocutaneous circuit
Heart: ventricle (V) A Atrium (A) Systemic Vein circulation V Left Right Systemic circuit A
Right systemic aorta

A V Right
Pulmonary circuit Left Systemic V aorta Left A
Pulmonary circuit
A V Right
A V Left Systemic circuit
Systemic capillaries
Figure 42.4
Concept 42.2: Double circulation in mammals depends on the anatomy and pumping cycle of the heart The structure and function of the human circulatory system
Can serve as a model for exploring mammalian circulation in general
Mammalian Circulation: The Pathway Heart valves

Dictate a one-way flow of blood through the heart
Blood begins its flow

With the right ventricle pumping blood to the lungs
In the lungs
The blood loads O2 and unloads CO2
Oxygen-rich blood from the lungs

Enters the heart at the left atrium and is pumped to the body tissues by the left ventricle
Blood returns to the heart

Through the right atrium
The mammalian cardiovascular system

7
Anterior vena cava
Capillaries of head and forelimbs
Pulmonary artery Capillaries of right lung
Aorta
9 6
Pulmonary artery
2 3 4 11 3
Capillaries of left lung
Pulmonary vein Right atrium
1 10
Left atrium
Pulmonary vein
Left ventricle Right ventricle Aorta
Posterior vena cava

8
Capillaries of abdominal organs and hind limbs
Figure 42.5
The Mammalian Heart: A Closer Look A closer look at the mammalian heart
Provides a better understanding of how double circulation works
Pulmonary artery Aorta Pulmonary artery Left atrium Pulmonary veins Anterior vena cava Right atrium
Pulmonary veins
Semilunar valve Atrioventricular valve
Semilunar valve Atrioventricular valve
Posterior vena cava
Figure 42.6
Right ventricle Left ventricle
The heart contracts and relaxes

In a rhythmic cycle called the cardiac cycle
The contraction, or pumping, phase of the cycle

Is called systole
The relaxation, or filling, phase of the cycle

Is called diastole
The cardiac cycle

Semilunar valves closed
2 Atrial systole; ventricular diastole
0.1 sec
0.3 sec 0.4 sec
Semilunar valves open
AV valves open
1 Atrial and ventricular diastole
AV valves closed 3 Ventricular systole; atrial diastole
Figure 42.7
The heart rate, also called the pulse

Is the number of beats per minute
The cardiac output

Is the volume of blood pumped into the systemic circulation per minute
Maintaining the Hearts Rhythmic Beat Some cardiac muscle cells are self-excitable
Meaning they contract without any signal from the nervous system
A region of the heart called the sinoatrial (SA) node, or pacemaker

Sets the rate and timing at which all cardiac muscle cells contract
Impulses from the SA node

Travel to the atrioventricular (AV) node
At the AV node, the impulses are delayed

And then travel to the Purkinje fibers that make the ventricles contract
The impulses that travel during the cardiac cycle

Can be recorded as an electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG)
The control of heart rhythm

1 Pacemaker generates 2 Signals are delayed 3 Signals pass 4 Signals spread
wave of signals to contract.
at AV node.
to heart apex.
Throughout ventricles.
SA node (pacemaker)
AV node
Bundle branches Heart apex Purkinje fibers
ECG
Figure 42.8
The pacemaker is influenced by

Nerves, hormones, body temperature, and exercise
Concept 42.3: Physical principles govern blood circulation The same physical principles that govern the movement of water in plumbing systems
Also influence the functioning of animal circulatory systems
Blood Vessel Structure and Function The infrastructure of the circulatory system
Is its network of blood vessels
All blood vessels

Are built of similar tissues
Have three similar layers

Artery Vein Basement membrane Endothelium Endothelium Smooth muscle Connective tissue Artery
100 m
Valve Endothelium Smooth muscle Connective tissue Vein
Capillary
Venule
Figure 42.9
Arteriole
Structural differences in arteries, veins, and capillaries

Correlate with their different functions
Arteries have thicker walls

To accommodate the high pressure of blood pumped from the heart
In the thinner-walled veins

Blood flows back to the heart mainly as a result of muscle action
Direction of blood flow in vein (toward heart)
Valve (open)
Skeletal muscle
Valve (closed)
Figure 42.10
Blood Flow Velocity Physical laws governing the movement of fluids through pipes
Influence blood flow and blood pressure
Velocity (cm/sec) Pressure (mm Hg)
Area (cm2)
The velocity of blood flow varies in the circulatory system and is slowest in the capillary beds as a result of the high resistance and large total crosssectional area
5,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 0 50 40 30 20 10 0
120 100 80 60 40 20 0
Systolic pressure Diastolic pressure

Capillaries Venae cavae Arteries Venules Arterioles
Veins
Aorta
Blood Pressure Blood pressure

Is the hydrostatic pressure that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel
Systolic pressure
Is the pressure in the arteries during ventricular systole Is the highest pressure in the arteries
Diastolic pressure
Is the pressure in the arteries during diastole Is lower than systolic pressure
Blood pressure
Can be easily measured in humans
1 A typical blood pressure reading for a 20-year-old is 120/70. The units for these numbers are mm of mercury (Hg); a blood pressure of 120 is a force that can support a column of mercury 120 mm high. 4 The cuff is loosened further until the blood flows freely through the artery and the sounds below the cuff disappear. The pressure at this point is the diastolic pressure remaining in the artery when the heart is relaxed. Blood pressure reading: 120/70 Pressure in cuff above 120 Rubber cuff inflated with air 120 Pressure in cuff below 120 120 70 Pressure in cuff below 70
Sounds audible in stethoscope
Sounds stop
Artery
Artery closed 2 A sphygmomanometer, an inflatable cuff attached to a pressure gauge, measures blood pressure in an artery. The cuff is wrapped around the upper arm and inflated until the pressure closes the artery, so that no blood flows past the cuff. When this occurs, the pressure exerted by the cuff exceeds the pressure in the artery. 3 A stethoscope is used to listen for sounds of blood flow below the cuff. If the artery is closed, there is no pulse below the cuff. The cuff is gradually deflated until blood begins to flow into the forearm, and sounds from blood pulsing into the artery below the cuff can be heard with the stethoscope. This occurs when the blood pressure is greater than the pressure exerted by the cuff. The pressure at this point is the systolic pressure.
Figure 42.12
Blood pressure is determined partly by cardiac output

And partly by peripheral resistance due to variable constriction of the arterioles
Capillary Function Capillaries in major organs are usually filled to capacity

But in many other sites, the blood supply varies
Two mechanisms
Regulate the distribution of blood in capillary beds
In one mechanism
Contraction of the smooth muscle layer in the wall of an arteriole constricts the vessel
In a second mechanism
Precapillary sphincters control the flow of blood between arterioles and venules
Precapillary sphincters Thoroughfare channel
(a) Sphincters relaxed Arteriole Venule Capillaries
(b) Sphincters contracted Arteriole Venule
(c) Capillaries and larger vessels (SEM)
Figure 42.13 ac
20 m
The critical exchange of substances between the blood and interstitial fluid
Takes place across the thin endothelial walls of the capillaries
The difference between blood pressure and osmotic pressure

Drives fluids out of capillaries at the arteriole end and into capillaries at the venule end
Tissue cell INTERSTITIAL FLUID Net fluid movement out Net fluid movement in
Capillary Capillary Red blood cell
15 m At the venule end of a capillary, blood pressure is less than osmotic pressure, and fluid flows from the interstitial fluid into the capillary. Blood pressure Osmotic pressure Inward flow
At the arterial end of a capillary, blood pressure is greater than osmotic pressure, and fluid flows out of the capillary into the interstitial fluid.
Direction of blood flow
Pressure
Outward flow
Figure 42.14
Arterial end of capillary
Venule end
Fluid Return by the Lymphatic System The lymphatic system

Returns fluid to the body from the capillary beds Aids in body defense
Fluid reenters the circulation

Directly at the venous end of the capillary bed and indirectly through the lymphatic system
Concept 42.4: Blood is a connective tissue with cells suspended in plasma Blood in the circulatory systems of vertebrates
Is a specialized connective tissue
Blood Composition and Function Blood consists of several kinds of cells

Suspended in a liquid matrix called plasma
The cellular elements

Occupy about 45% of the volume of blood
Plasma Blood plasma is about 90% water Among its many solutes are
Inorganic salts in the form of dissolved ions, sometimes referred to as electrolytes
The composition of mammalian plasma

Plasma 55%
Constituent
Water
Major functions Solvent for carrying other substances
Icons (blood electrolytes Sodium Potassium Calcium Magnesium Chloride Bicarbonate Plasma proteins Albumin Fibringen Immunoglobulins (antibodies)
Osmotic balance pH buffering, and regulation of membrane permeability
Separated blood elements
Osmotic balance, pH buffering Clotting Defense
Substances transported by blood Nutrients (such as glucose, fatty acids, vitamins) Waste products of metabolism Respiratory gases (O2 and CO2) Hormones
Figure 42.15
Another important class of solutes is the plasma proteins

Which influence blood pH, osmotic pressure, and viscosity
Various types of plasma proteins

Function in lipid transport, immunity, and blood clotting
Cellular Elements Suspended in blood plasma are two classes of cells

Red blood cells, which transport oxygen White blood cells, which function in defense
A third cellular element, platelets

Are fragments of cells that are involved in clotting
The cellular elements of mammalian blood

Cellular elements 45%
Cell type Number per L (mm3) of blood 56 million Functions
Erythrocytes (red blood cells)
Transport oxygen and help transport carbon dioxide
Separated blood elements
Leukocytes (white blood cells)
5,00010,000
Defense and immunity
Basophil Eosinophil Neutrophil
Lymphocyte
Monocyte
Platelets
250,000 400,000
Blood clotting
Figure 42.15
Erythrocytes Red blood cells, or erythrocytes

Are by far the most numerous blood cells
Transport oxygen throughout the body
Leukocytes The blood contains five major types of white blood cells, or leukocytes
Monocytes, neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, and lymphocytes, which function in defense by phagocytizing bacteria and debris or by producing antibodies
Platelets Platelets function in blood clotting
Stem Cells and the Replacement of Cellular Elements
The cellular elements of blood wear out

And are replaced constantly throughout a persons life
Erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets all develop from a common source

A single population of cells called pluripotent stem cells in the red marrow of bones
Pluripotent stem cells (in bone marrow) Lymphoid stem cells Myeloid stem cells
Basophils B cells T cells
Lymphocytes
Eosinophils
Neutrophils Erythrocytes Platelets Monocytes
Figure 42.16
Blood Clotting When the endothelium of a blood vessel is damaged

The clotting mechanism begins
A cascade of complex reactions

Converts fibrinogen to fibrin, forming a clot
1 The clotting process begins when the endothelium of a vessel is damaged, exposing connective tissue in the vessel wall to blood. Platelets adhere to collagen fibers in the connective tissue and release a substance that makes nearby platelets sticky. 2 The platelets form a plug that provides emergency protection against blood loss. 3 This seal is reinforced by a clot of fibrin when vessel damage is severe. Fibrin is formed via a multistep process: Clotting factors released from the clumped platelets or damaged cells mix with clotting factors in the plasma, forming an activation cascade that converts a plasma protein called prothrombin to its active form, thrombin. Thrombin itself is an enzyme that catalyzes the final step of the clotting process, the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin. The threads of fibrin become interwoven into a patch (see colorized SEM).
Collagen fibers Platelet releases chemicals that make nearby platelets sticky Platelet plug Fibrin clot Red blood cell
Clotting factors from: Platelets Damaged cells Plasma (factors include calcium, vitamin K)
Prothrombin
Thrombin Fibrinogen Fibrin

5 m
Figure 42.17
Cardiovascular Disease Cardiovascular diseases

Are disorders of the heart and the blood vessels Account for more than half the deaths in the United States
One type of cardiovascular disease, atherosclerosis

Is caused by the buildup of cholesterol within arteries
Connective tissue
Smooth muscle Endothelium Plaque
(a) Normal artery 50 m

(b) Partly clogged artery
250 m
Figure 42.18a, b
Hypertension, or high blood pressure

Promotes atherosclerosis and increases the risk of heart attack and stroke
A heart attack
Is the death of cardiac muscle tissue resulting from blockage of one or more coronary arteries
A stroke
Is the death of nervous tissue in the brain, usually resulting from rupture or blockage of arteries in the head
Concept 42.5: Gas exchange occurs across specialized respiratory surfaces Gas exchange
Supplies oxygen for cellular respiration and disposes of carbon dioxide
Respiratory medium (air of water) Organismal level Circulatory system
O2
CO2
Respiratory surface
Cellular level Energy-rich molecules from food Cellular respiration ATP
Figure 42.19
Animals require large, moist respiratory surfaces for the adequate diffusion of respiratory gases
Between their cells and the respiratory medium, either air or water
Gills in Aquatic Animals Gills are outfoldings of the body surface

Specialized for gas exchange
In some invertebrates
The gills have a simple shape and are distributed over much of the body
(a) Sea star. The gills of a sea star are simple tubular projections of the skin. The hollow core of each gill is an extension of the coelom (body cavity). Gas exchange occurs by diffusion across the gill surfaces, and fluid in the coelom circulates in and out of the gills, aiding gas transport. The surfaces of a sea stars tube feet also function in gas exchange.
Gills Coelom
Figure 42.20a
Tube foot
Many segmented worms have flaplike gills

That extend from each segment of their body
(b) Marine worm. Many polychaetes (marine worms of the phylum Annelida) have a pair of flattened appendages called parapodia on each body segment. The parapodia serve as gills and also function in crawling and swimming.
Parapodia
Figure 42.20b
Gill
The gills of clams, crayfish, and many other animals

Are restricted to a local body region
(c) Scallop. The gills of a scallop are long, flattened plates that project from the main body mass inside the hard shell. Cilia on the gills circulate water around the gill surfaces.
(d) Crayfish. Crayfish and other crustaceans have long, feathery gills covered by the exoskeleton. Specialized body appendages drive water over the gill surfaces.
Gills Gills
Figure 42.20c, d
The effectiveness of gas exchange in some gills, including those of fishes

Is increased by ventilation and countercurrent flow of blood and water
Oxygen-poor blood Gill arch Blood vessel Oxygen-rich blood Lamella
Gill arch
Water flow
Operculum
O2 Water flow over lamellae showing % O2 Gill filaments
Figure 42.21
Blood flow through capillaries in lamellae showing % O2
Countercurrent exchange
Tracheal Systems in Insects The tracheal system of insects

Consists of tiny branching tubes that penetrate the body
Air sacs Tracheae
Spiracle
(a) The respiratory system of an insect consists of branched internal tubes that deliver air directly to body cells. Rings of chitin reinforce the largest tubes, called tracheae, keeping them from collapsing. Enlarged portions of tracheae form air sacs near organs that require a large supply of oxygen. Air enters the tracheae through openings called spiracles on the insects body surface and passes into smaller tubes called tracheoles. The tracheoles are closed and contain fluid (blue-gray). When the animal is active and is using more O2, most of the fluid is withdrawn into the body. This increases the surface area of air in contact with cells. Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 42.22a
The tracheal tubes

Supply O2 directly to body cells
Body cell Tracheole Air sac
Trachea Body wall Myofibrils
Air Tracheoles
Mitochondria
(b) This micrograph shows cross sections of tracheoles in a tiny piece of insect flight muscle (TEM). Each of the numerous mitochondria in the muscle cells lies within about 5 m of a tracheole.
Figure 42.22b
2.5 m
Lungs Spiders, land snails, and most terrestrial vertebrates

Have internal lungs
Mammalian Respiratory Systems: A Closer Look A system of branching ducts

Conveys air to the lungs
Branch from the pulmonary vein (oxygen-rich blood) Terminal bronchiole Nasal cavity Pharynx Larynx Esophagus Trachea Right lung Bronchus Bronchiole Diaphragm Heart SEM Left lung 50 m Branch from the pulmonary artery (oxygen-poor blood)
Alveoli
50 m
Colorized SEM
Figure 42.23
In mammals, air inhaled through the nostrils

Passes through the pharynx into the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and dead-end alveoli, where gas exchange occurs
Concept 42.6: Breathing ventilates the lungs The process that ventilates the lungs is breathing
The alternate inhalation and exhalation of air
How an Amphibian Breathes An amphibian such as a frog

Ventilates its lungs by positive pressure breathing, which forces air down the trachea
How a Mammal Breathes Mammals ventilate their lungs

By negative pressure breathing, which pulls air into the lungs
Rib cage expands as rib muscles contract Air inhaled Rib cage gets smaller as rib muscles relax Air exhaled
Lung Diaphragm
INHALATION Diaphragm contracts (moves down)
EXHALATION Diaphragm relaxes (moves up)
Figure 42.24
Lung volume increases

As the rib muscles and diaphragm contract
How a Bird Breathes Besides lungs, bird have eight or nine air sacs
That function as bellows that keep air flowing through the lungs
Air Anterior air sacs Trachea Posterior air sacs Lungs Lungs Air
Air tubes (parabronchi) in lung
1 mm
INHALATION Air sacs fill
EXHALATION Air sacs empty; lungs fill
Figure 42.25
Air passes through the lungs

In one direction only
Every exhalation
Completely renews the air in the lungs
Control of Breathing in Humans The main breathing control centers

Are located in two regions of the brain, the medulla oblongata and the pons
1 The control center in the medulla sets the basic rhythm, and a control center in the pons moderates it, smoothing out the transitions between inhalations and exhalations. Cerebrospinal fluid 4 The medullas control center also helps regulate blood CO2 level. Sensors in the medulla detect changes in the pH (reflecting CO2 concentration) of the blood and cerebrospinal fluid bathing the surface of the brain. 5 Nerve impulses relay changes in CO2 and O2 concentrations. Other sensors in the walls of the aorta and carotid arteries in the neck detect changes in blood pH and send nerve impulses to the medulla. In response, the medullas breathing control center alters the rate and depth of breathing, increasing both to dispose of excess CO2 or decreasing both if CO2 levels are depressed.
Pons 2 Nerve impulses trigger muscle contraction. Nerves from a breathing control center in the medulla oblongata of the brain send impulses to the diaphragm and rib muscles, stimulating them to contract and causing inhalation. Breathing control centers
Medulla oblongata
Carotid arteries Aorta 3 In a person at rest, these nerve impulses result in about 10 to 14 inhalations per minute. Between inhalations, the muscles relax and the person exhales.
Figure 42.26
Diaphragm Rib muscles
6 The sensors in the aorta and carotid arteries also detect changes in O2 levels in the blood and signal the medulla to increase the breathing rate when levels become very low.
The centers in the medulla

Regulate the rate and depth of breathing in response to pH changes in the cerebrospinal fluid
The medulla adjusts breathing rate and depth

To match metabolic demands
Sensors in the aorta and carotid arteries

Monitor O2 and CO2 concentrations in the blood Exert secondary control over breathing
Concept 42.7: Respiratory pigments bind and transport gases The metabolic demands of many organisms
Require that the blood transport large quantities of O2 and CO2
The Role of Partial Pressure Gradients Gases diffuse down pressure gradients
In the lungs and other organs
Diffusion of a gas
Depends on differences in a quantity called partial pressure
A gas always diffuses from a region of higher partial pressure

To a region of lower partial pressure
In the lungs and in the tissues

O2 and CO2 diffuse from where their partial pressures are higher to where they are lower
Inhaled air
Exhaled air
160 0.2 O2 CO2
Alveolar spaces
104 40
120 27
O2 CO2 O2 CO2 CO2 O2
Alveolar epithelial cells

Blood entering alveolar capillaries
40 45
1
O2
Blood leaving alveolar capillaries

104 40
O2 CO2
Alveolar capillaries of lung
O2 CO2
Pulmonary arteries
Pulmonary veins
Systemic veins
CO2
Systemic arteries
Heart Tissue capillaries
O2
Blood leaving tissue capillaries

40 45
Blood entering tissue capillaries

100 40
CO2
O2
O2 CO2
O2 CO2
Tissue cells
Figure 42.27
<40 >45
O2 CO2
Respiratory Pigments Respiratory pigments

Are proteins that transport oxygen
Greatly increase the amount of oxygen that blood can carry
Oxygen Transport The respiratory pigment of almost all vertebrates

Is the protein hemoglobin, contained in the erythrocytes
Like all respiratory pigments

Hemoglobin must reversibly bind O2, loading O2 in the lungs and unloading it in other parts of the body
Heme group
Iron atom
O2 loaded in lungs O2 unloaded In tissues
O2
O2
Figure 42.28
Polypeptide chain
Loading and unloading of O2

Depend on cooperation between the subunits of the hemoglobin molecule
The binding of O2 to one subunit induces the other subunits to bind O2 with more affinity
Cooperative O2 binding and release

Is evident in the dissociation curve for hemoglobin
A drop in pH
Lowers the affinity of hemoglobin for O2
O2 saturation of hemoglobin (%)
(a) PO2 and Hemoglobin Dissociation at 37C and pH 7.4
100 80 60 40 20 0 0
O2 unloaded from hemoglobin during normal metabolism O2 reserve that can be unloaded from hemoglobin to tissues with high metabolism
20
40
60
80 100
Lungs
Tissues during Tissues at rest exercise PO2 (mm Hg) (b) pH and Hemoglobin Dissociation
O2 saturation of hemoglobin (%)
100 80 60 40 20 0 0 20 40
pH 7.2 pH 7.4
Bohr shift: Additional O2 released from hemoglobin at lower pH (higher CO2 concentration)
Figure 42.29a, b
60
80 100
PO2 (mm Hg)
Carbon Dioxide Transport Hemoglobin also helps transport CO2

And assists in buffering
Carbon from respiring cells

Diffuses into the blood plasma and then into erythrocytes and is ultimately released in the lungs
Carbon dioxide produced by body tissues diffuses into the interstitial fluid and the plasma. Over 90% of the CO2 diffuses into red blood cells, leaving only 7% in the plasma as dissolved CO2. Some CO2 is picked up and transported by hemoglobin.
Tissue cell CO2 produced Interstitial CO 2 fluid 1 Blood plasma CO 2 within capillary 2 CO2 H2O 4 3
CO2 transport from tissues
Most of the HCO3 diffuse into the plasma where it is carried in the bloodstream to the lungs. In the HCO3 diffuse from the plasma red blood cells, combining with H+ released from hemoglobin and forming H2CO3. Carbonic acid is converted back into CO2 and water. CO2 formed from H2CO3 is unloaded from hemoglobin and diffuses into the interstitial fluid. diffuses into the alveolar space, from which it is expelled during exhalation. The reduction of CO2 concentration in the plasma drives the breakdown of H2CO3 Into CO2 and water in the red blood cells (see step 9), a reversal of the reaction that occurs in the tissues (see step 4).
Capillary wall
Red Hemoglobin H2CO3 blood Carbonic acid Hb picks up cell CO2 and H+ 5 + H+ Bicarbonate
HCO3
However, most CO2 reacts with water in red blood cells, forming carbonic acid (H2CO3), a reaction catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase contained. Within red blood cells. Carbonic acid dissociates into a biocarbonate ion (HCO3) and a hydrogen ion (H+).
HCO3
To lungs
10
HCO3
CO2 transport to lungs
8
HCO3 + H+
11 CO2
Hemoglobin releases CO2 and H+
H2CO3
Hb
9 H2O CO2
Hemoglobin binds most of the H+ from H2CO3 preventing the H+ from acidifying the blood and thus preventing the Bohr shift.
CO2 CO2 10 CO2 11 Alveolar space in lung
Figure 42.30
Elite Animal Athletes Migratory and diving mammals

Have evolutionary adaptations that allow them to perform extraordinary feats
The Ultimate Endurance Runner The extreme O2 consumption of the antelopelike pronghorn
Underlies its ability to run at high speed over long distances
Figure 42.31
Diving Mammals Deep-diving air breathers

Stockpile O2 and deplete it slowly

Chapter42 Circulation and Gas Exchange

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Chapter42 Circulation and Gas Exchange

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Chapter 42

Circulation and Gas Exchange

Lectures by Chris Romero

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

For most of the cells making up multicellular organisms

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The feathery gills projecting from a salmon

Concept 42.1: Circulatory systems reflect phylogeny Transport systems

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Most complex animals have internal transport systems

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Gastrovascular Cavities Simple animals, such as cnidarians

The gastrovascular cavity

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Some cnidarians, such as jellies

Radial canal 5 cm Figure 42.2

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Open and Closed Circulatory Systems More complex animals

Both of these types of systems have three basic components

A muscular pump (the heart)

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

In insects, other arthropods, and most molluscs

Hemolymph in sinuses surrounding ograns

Tubular heart (a) An open circulatory system

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

In a closed circulatory system

Small branch vessels in each organ

Dorsal vessel (main heart)

(b) A closed circulatory system

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Blood flows in a closed cardiovascular system

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Arteries carry blood to capillaries

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Fishes A fish heart has two main chambers

Blood pumped from the ventricle

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Amphibians Frogs and other amphibians

The ventricle pumps blood into a forked artery

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Reptiles (Except Birds) Reptiles have double circulation

Turtles, snakes, and lizards

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Mammals and Birds In all mammals and birds

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

A powerful four-chambered heart

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Vertebrate circulatory systems

REPTILES (EXCEPT BIRDS)

MAMMALS AND BIRDS

Lung and skin capillaries

Right systemic aorta

Pulmonary circuit Left Systemic V aorta Left A

A V Left Systemic circuit

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Mammalian Circulation: The Pathway Heart valves

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Blood begins its flow

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Oxygen-rich blood from the lungs

Blood returns to the heart