Chapter 7

Site Investigation (S.I) and Geophysics

SI comprises
a) Planning b) Desk Study c) Investigation on Natural rock or Man Made outcrop d) Drilling Exploration e) Observation into borehole

Planning

The successful design and construction really need prediction data like soil and rock characteristics, and groundwater level & knowledge on geology structure. To obtain that information, engineers and geologists acquires MAP and CROSS SECTION SUBSURFACE which are having the kind of information such as: Topography contour for pre and post construction. Top layer of rocks contour Weathered rocks layer contour Contour between rock and soil boundaries

Desk Study

Study on:MAP and REPORTS Aerial Photo and Remote Sensing Photographs on color or black and white

Investigation on Natural rock or Man Made outcrop

1) Investigation on surface: Test pits and trenches Adits and Shaft

2) Observation on rock outcrops: Geological mapping on rock exposed Sampling on jointed rocks
3) Seismic activities and Faulted:

4) Using geophysics methods in SI

Drilling Exploration

Rock core drilling Core orientation

Supervision and logging

Observation into borehole

Camera (TV) Packer Test Geophysics Dilatometer, Pressuremeter

Rotary Wash Boring (Borehole)

Wash boring

The foremost S.I used around the world. The soil and rock characteristics were recorded into BORELOG (Figure 7.3 (a) & (b)) Soil samples were taken using spilt barrel meanwhile rock samples obtained using core barrel.

Boring Record

Boring logs: Information on subsurface conditions obtained from the boring operation is typically presented in the form of a boring log (boring record). A continuous record of the various strata found at the boring is developed. The contents are: Description/classification of soils and rock type encountered changes in strata water level soil consistency type and depth of sample and field test

Limitation of Boring Data

Providing info on subsurface conditions only at the actual drilling location. Interpolation between borings to determine conditions does involve some degree of uncertainty. Some limitations inherent to the info shown on typical drillers log:

The employed crews are primarily drilling tradesmen: w/ limited experience in detail soil classification; have no familiarity w/ the importance of subsurface conditions on the features of building design and construction. Some importance items of info can be innocently passed over by driller whose major interest is in the rate of drilling progress. Assign technically trained personnel: to examine and classify recovered soils, to direct the depth as which should be taken, to select the drilling sequence, to document factors relating to surface and subsurface conditions that could influence on design or construction.

Soil Sampling

Disturbed (but representative):

Grain size analysis Liquid & plastic limit Specific gravity Organic content Classification

Undisturbed:

Consolidation Hydraulic conductivity Shear strength

Rock Sampling

6 meter of core rock length must be obtained for granitic rocks in order to make sure the rock formation is not a BOULDER. 12 meter of core rock length of limestone must be coring to ensure the rock formation is bedrock. (Hinder from cavity, pinnacles, sinkholes or others CARSTIC formation structures resulting from present of limestone). RQD, TCR, SCR and FI must be calculated for geotechnical interpretation. Rock strength Tests: Uniaxial Compression Test, Triaxial Compression Test, Point Load Test and Schmidt hammer (Strength Test)

Rock Quality Designation (RQD)

The Rock Quality Designation index (RQD) was developed by Deere (Deere et al 1967) to provide a quantitative estimate of rock mass quality from drill core logs. RQD is defined as the percentage of intact core pieces longer than 100 mm (4 inches) in the total length of core. The core should be at least NW size (54.7 mm or 2.15 inches in diameter) and should be drilled with a doubletube core barrel. The correct procedures for measurement of the length of core pieces and the calculation of RQD are summarized in Figure 7.2.

Procedure for measurement and calculation of RQD (After Deere, 1989)

Contd

RQD will be referred to Table 7.1. Table 7.1 indicated the rock quality from core obtained from sites. Sometimes, RQD data obtained, could not trusted because of drilling techniques improper. For example, the drilling machine should be setup in properly manner.

Measurement identify rock quality (Source: Deere, 1989)

RQD (%) 0-25 25-50 50-75 75-90 90-100 Descriptions Rock Quality Very Poor Poor Moderate Good Very Good

Figure 7.3 (a) Borelog in soil condition

Figure 7.3 (b)

Borelog shows the core rock logging

Core Rock Sample of Quartz Mica Schist at Lebuh Raya Simpang Pulai to Cameron Highland

Schematic diagram of Rock Core

Core Logging Calculations

Total Core Recovery (TCR%) = Core Recovered/Length of Core Solid Core Recovery (SCR%) = Solid core pieces in full diameter/ Length of Core Rock Quality Designation (RQD%) = Solid Core Pieces > 100mm/Length of Core Fracture Index (FI/m run) = Number of Fractures/Length of Core Examples Calculation: TCR = 1.4/1.5 = 93% SCR = 0.18 +0.71 + 0.17/1.5 = 71% RQD = 0.23 + 0.33 + 0.24 + 0.15/1.5 = 63%

Geophysics

Resistivity Seismic Refraction Seismic Reflection Gravity

Resistivity

Resisitivity measurements are made by injecting a DC current into the ground through two electrodes and measuring the resulting voltage at the surface at two other electrodes.

The depth of measurement is related to electrode spacing.

Resisitivity measures bulk electrical resistivity which is a function of the soil and rock matrix, percentage of saturation and type of pore fluids.

Equipments used during carried out the resistivity survey

Resistivity Sounding

Resistivity Measurement & Field arrangement

Resistivity Sounding

Resistivity

Uses: Resistivity measurements are primary used for soundings to determine depth and thickness of geologic strata. Also can be applied to profiling measurements for locating anomalous geologic conditions, detecting and mapping contaminant plumes, locating buried wastes and mineral exploration. Can be used for azimuthal measurements to determine fracture orientation.

Contd

Advantages: Good vertical resolution (sounding) May also be used for profiling Measurements can be easily made to depths of few hundred feet or more

Various electrode configurations are available for different applications

Contd

Disadvantages: Requires intrusive contact with the ground Station measurements only Electrode array can be quite long, with outermost electrode spacing from 9 to 18 times the depth of interest Susceptible to interference from nearby metal fences, buried pipes, cables, etc

Generally, cannot be used over asphalt or concrete

Effectiveness decreases at very low resisitivity values (use electromagnetic measurements)

Table 7.3

List of resistivity value for several rocks and soils. (Keller and chknecht, 1966, Daniels and Alberty, 1966)

Material
m
1

Resistivity

Conductivity
10-6-2x10-4 10-6-10-3 2.5x10-8-1.7x10-3 4x10-9-10-2 5x10-9-10-2

Conductivity Resistivity

Igneous& Metamorf Granite Basalt Slate Marble Quarzite Sedimentary Rock Sandstone Shale Limestone

5x103 106 103-106 6x102-4x107 102-2.5x108 102-2x108

8-4x103 20-2x103 50-4x102

2.5x10-4-0.125 5x10-4-0.05 2.5x10-3-0.02

Soil and Water Clay Alluvium Groundwater (Clean) Marine water

1-100 10-800 10-100 0.15

0.01-1 1.25x10-3-0.1 0.01-0.1 6.7

Application of resistivity survey to determine weathering profiles

Application of resistivity survey to determine weathering profiles

Application of resistivity survey to determine sinkholes or cavity of limestone

Application of resistivity survey to determine water boundaries

Seismic Refraction

Seismic refraction measurements are made by measuring the travel time of a refracted seismic wave as it travels from the surface through one layer to another and is refracted back to the surface where it is picked up by geophones. Shock or impact is made at a point, seismic waves through the surrounding soil & rock.

The wave speed relating to the density and bonding characteristics of the material.
The velocity is determined.

The magnitude of the velocity is than utilized to identified the material.

The travel time of a seismic wave is a function of soil and rock density and hardness.

Seismic refraction survey equipment

Seismograph

Seismic cable Trigger cable

Geophone Seismic cable

12lb Sledge hammer

12V AC battery

Striker plate

Seismic refraction wave movement into subsurface

Seismic Refraction Measurement & Field arrangement

SEISMIC REFRACTION SURVEY LINE SETUP

Contd

Uses:
Primary application for seismic refraction is for determination of depth and thickness of geologic strata, structure and anomalous conditions Depth can be calculated under each geophone to produce a detailed two-dimensional top of rock profile

If compressional P-wave and shear S-wave velocities are measured, in situ elastic moduli of soil and rock can be determined
Can be used for azimuthal measurements to determine fracture orientation Also has application for evaluation of man-made structures

Contd

Advantages: Typical measurements are less than 100 feet but can easily made to greater depths, if necessary Can resolve up to 3 to 4 layers

Can provide depth under each geophone

Both P and S waves can be determined The source of seismic energy can be as simple as 10 pound sledge hammer

Contd

Disadvantages:

The survey line length (source to farthest geophone) may be 4 to 5 times the desired depth of investigation Requires intrusive contact with the ground Station measurement only Sensitive to acoustic noise and vibrations Seismic velocity of layers must increase with depth Will not detect thin layers or layers with inverted velocities Deeper measurements will require explosives as an energy source

Subsurface profile generated (2D image): Fault detection

4452.92 m/s

3006.53 m/s

Possible Fault

1852.67 m/s

828.82 m/s 227.52 m/s

Seismic Reflection

The seismic reflection technique measures the travel time of seismic waves from the ground surface downward to a geologic contact where part of the seismic energy is reflected back to geophones at the surface while the rest of the energy continues to the next interface.

The travel time of the seismic wave is a function of soil and rock density and hardness.

Schematic diagram of seismic reflection

Contd

Uses: Primary application is for determination of depth and thickness of geologic strata, structural and anomalous conditions.

Contd

Advantages:

Provides a high resolution cross section (as compared to refraction) of soil/rock along profile line

The high resolution method uses frequencies of up to a few 100 Hz

Measurements can be made from about 50 feet to a few 1,000 feet deep Measurements to these depths can often be made without explosives, often using a 10 pound sledge hammer as a seismic source The survey line length (source to farthest geophone) is usually 1 to 2 times the desired depth of investigation (much less than that required for refraction measurements) Both P and S waves can be measured.

Contd

Disadvantages:

Requires intrusive contact with the ground

Station measurement only Sensitive to acoustic noise and vibration Can require extensive processing

Wave velocity in various soils & rock

Type of soil/rock Soil: Sand, dry silt, fine grained top soil Alluvium Compacted clays, clayey gravel, dense clayey sand Loess Rock: Slate and shale Sandstone Granite Sound limestone 2 500 5 000 1 500 5 000 4 000 6 000 5 000 10 000 200 1 000 500 2 000 1 000 2 500 250 - 750 P-wave velocity m/sec

P-Wave velocities of common soil materials

Material Air Water Petroleum Loess Soil Snow Solid Glacial Ice Sand (loose) Sand (dry, loose) Sand (Water Saturated, loose) Glacial Moraine Sand and Gravel (near surface) Sand and Gravel (2 km depth) Clay Estuarine Muds/ Clay Floodplain Alluvium Permafrost (Quartenary sediment) Sandstone Limestone (soft) Limestone (hard) Dolomites Anhydrite Rock salt Gypsum Shales Granites Basalts Gabbro Peridotite Serpentinite Gneiss Marbles Sulphide ores Pulverised fuel ash Made Ground Land fill refuse Concrete Disturbed soil Clay landfill cap (compacted) P-Wave Velocities (m/ s) 330 1450-1530 1300-1400 300-600 100-500 350-3000 3000-4000 200-2000 200-1000 1500-2000 1500-2700 400-2300 3000-3500 1000-2500 300-1800 1800-2200 1500-4900 1400-4500 1700-4200 2800-7000 2500-6500 3500-5500 4000-5500 2000-3500 2000-4100 4600-6200 5500-6500 6400-7000 7800-8400 5500-6500 3500-7600 3780-7000 3950-6700 600-1000 160-600 400-750 3000-3500 180-335 335-380

Determination of subsurface profile using seismic refraction method

Determination of subsurface profile using seismic reflection method

Determination of subsurface profile using seismic refraction method

Determination of subsurface profile using seismic refraction method

Determination of subsurface profile using seismic refraction method

Determination of subsurface profile and geological structure using seismic refraction method

Gravity

Gravity measurements detect changes in the earth's gravitational field caused by local changes in the density of the soil and rock or engineered structures.

Sketch of gravity survey over cavity

Gravity survey

Contd

Uses:

Standard gravity measurements are primarily applied to characterizing geologic structure using widely spaced stations (100's to 1,000's of feet apart). Microgravity measurements can be used to characterize detailed localized geologic conditions (such as bedrock channels, caves, and abandoned tunnels and mines) usually within the upper few 100 feet. Microgravity uses closely spaced stations (a few feet to about 50 feet) and a micro gravimeter (capable of reading to a few microgals).

Contd

Advantages:

Provides a means to characterize conditions in geologic and cultural environments, where other geophysical methods may fail Does not require intrusive ground contact Data can be interpreted to provide estimates of depth size and the nature of the anomaly Can be used inside buildings and structures

Contd

Disadvantages:

Station measurements only Requires base station for drift corrections Requires accurate elevation measurements The process of making microgravity measurements is a relatively slow and tedious in the field and requires extensive processing and corrections Susceptible to cultural and natural vibrations

End of the Chapter 7.

Q & A