The Seven basic tools of QC

The Basic Seven QC Tools

Pareto analysis Cause and Effect diagram Check sheets Histogram Control charts Stratification Scatter diagram
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Used in data gathering and analysis to solve specific QC problems

Pareto analysis
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1. Pareto analysis
Pareto principle is a simple but very powerful tool which helps in segregating defects into a few Most important defects and many Unimportant ones which together result in nonconformance. This analysis also identifies vital few from trivial many.

80:20
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Steps to draw
1. Collection of data 2. List the data in a tally sheet and calculate the total 3. Rearrange the data in a pareto chart datasheet by listing Items, their individual total in the descending order, cumulative total, individual percentage and cumulative percentage 4. Draw the chart as follows: i. Two vertical axes,one for Individual percentage and other for cumulative percentage ii. Divide the horizontal axis into number of equal intervals equal to the number of items iii. Construct a bar chart iv. Draw the cumulative curve 5. Write down the vital few

Pareto analysis data sheet

ITEM TOTAL

CUMULATIVE TOTAL

PERCENTAGE

CUMULATIVE PERCENTAGE

Cumulative curve

Cumulative percentage

Item

Exercise
The rejection percentage in a particular front panel casting, which was machined, is 32%. That is 32 out of 100 castings were rejected. The inspection report was analyzed as per various causes for rejections as listed below.

A - Due to operators workmanship ------- ---------- 3 B - Due to casting Quality ------------------------------ 8 C - Due to Tool Defect ---------------------------------- 18 D - Due to Machine Defect --------------------------- 2 E - Due to Miscellaneous cause ---------------------- 1
ITEM C B A D E TOTAL TOTAL 18 8 3 2 1 32 CUMULATIVE TOTAL 18 26 29 31 32 OVERALL TOTAL % 56.25 25.00 9.37 6.25 3.13 100.00 CUMULATIVE % 56.25 81.25 90.62 96.87 100.00 7

Final chart
96.87
100%

100

90.62 81.25

60%

56.25
Cumulative percentage

40%

25.00
20%

9.37 6.25 3.13 C B A D E Concentrate on tool defect and casting quality 8

Cause and effect diagram

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2. Cause and effect diagram

Cause and Effect diagram is a diagram which gives the relationship between Quality characteristic and its factors. It is a pictorial presentation in which all possible causes and their effect are displayed A problem can be due to variety of reasons, solution becomes simpler by identifying the true causes. This diagram is also called as Fish bone or River diagram but popularly as Ishikawa diagram.

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Steps
1. Decide on the quality characteristic(effect) to be improved or achieved 2. Draw the backbone from left to right, terminating at the head and indicate the quality characteristic 3. Draw the big bone and indicate the primary cause 4. Draw the medium size bone and indicate the secondary cause (sub cause) 5. Draw the small bones and indicate the tertiary cause (which is secondary to a sub cause) 6. Ensure that all causes (factors) which influence the effect are displayed in the diagram
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Ex: C & E
Primary cause 2
Secondary cause
Medium Size bone

Primary cause 1

Big bone Head Effect

Back bone

Small Tertiary bone cause

Primary cause 3

Cause

Effect
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Ex: Machined Parts

PROCESS Q.C. TRAINING INSIDE FACTORY SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS FIXTURING EDUCATION TOOLS CUTTING TOOLS FIXTURE Q.C.CONCEPTS USED CONDITION OF MACHINE GRINDING FACILITY/METHOD MACHINE TOLERANCES ON DIFFERENT MATERIALS CAPABILITY HOURS USED USAGE QUALITY OF INSTRUMENTS USED PRODUCT DESIGN CLARITY OF DRAWING LOCATION CALIBRATION FREQUENCY TEMPERAMENT SKILL KNOWLEDGE MACHINED PARTS SPEEDS & FEEDS

FEASIBILITY OF PRODUCTION

WORKING CONDITION

EXPERIENCE

DESIGN

INSPECTION

OPERATION

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Check sheets

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3. Check sheets
The purpose of Check sheets is to make it easy to compile the data in such a form that they may be used easily and analyzed automatically. Its main function is to simplify the data collection process

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EX: Check sheet for TV component failures

Enter a mark for each component replaced. Mark like the following: TIME PERIOD: 22 Feb to 27 Feb 2000 REPAIR TECHNICIAN: Thakre TV SET MODEL 1013 Integrated circuits Capacitors Resistors Transformers Commands CRT TV SET MODEL 1017 Integrated circuits Capacitors Resistors Transformers Commands CRT TV SET MODEL 1017 Integrated circuits Capacitors Resistors Transformers Commands CRT

COMPONENTS REPLACED BY LAB

//// //// // /// / / //// / // //// / / //// / // /

////

////

//// //

////

////

//// //

////

//// //

////

////

//// //

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Types
1. Production process distribution check Through such check sheets any change in the process distribution can be studied 2. Defective items check In order to identify the number of defects (where such defects are previously classified) and to take appropriate corrective actions.
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Types
3.Defect location checks The check sheet is a reduced scale drawing of the part and identified defects can be located in the check sheet for analysis and corrective action 4. Defective cause check Check sheets are used to investigate data concerning defective causes and corresponding data on effects. These are later analyzed through the use of stratification. 5. Confirmation checks

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Check sheet
(customer complaints) SL no 1 Problems Frequency

Delivery

IIII

II

2 3 4

Packaging Quality/performance Personnel

IIII IIII IIII

IIII III II

IIII

14 8 7

Invoicing

IIII

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Histogram

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4. Histogram
Histograms or frequency distribution diagrams are bar charts showing the distribution pattern of observations grouped in convenient class intervals and arranged in order of magnitude

The purpose of histogram is to study the pattern of observations and draw conclusions based on distribution

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Steps to construct
Procedure to construct histogram 1. Collect data (min.of 50 observations-on a specific item) 2. Arrange all values in an ascending order. 3. Divide the entire range of values into convenient number (Usually less than or equal to the square root of the number of observations) of groups each representing an equal class interval( /50=7) 4. Note the frequency of observations in each group 5. Draw X-axis & Y-axis, decide the scales for class on X-axis and number of readings or frequency on Y-axis 6. Plot the points and draw the bars 7. Give histogram a suitable title 8. Study the pattern of distribution and draw conclusions regarding normality of distribution and process capability
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Example
Table for class marks and frequency

Class marks
0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80 80-90 90-100

frequency
2 3 5 9 19 8 5 4 3 2

Total students=60

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Ex: Histogram
0-10 2 10-20 3 20-30 5 30-40 9 40-50 19 50-60 8 60-70 5 70-80 4 80-90 3 90-100 2 20 19

Limits
10 9 8

0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 24

Control charts

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5. Control charts
A Control Chart is a line chart with statistically
determined upper control limit and lower control limit lines drawn on either side of the process average.

It is a snap shot of the process over time providing

further insight as to the consistency and quality of that process. Upper Control Limit (UCL) Measurement defective Average etc. Lower Control Limit (LCL)
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Introduction
Introduced to Industry by Walter Shewhart in the 1920s
Ensures that only quality goods are produced by monitoring the process average and range. Process average and range must stay within the bounds of upper and Lower statistical Limits. If Process average or range falls outside the control limits Process is out of statistical control and some identifiable cause is responsible (special cause).
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Causes
Chance Causes: Variations by chance cause is unavoidable and inevitably occurs in a process, even if the operation is carried out using standardized raw materials and methods.

Assignable Causes: Variation by assignable cause means

that there are meaningful factors to be investigated. It is

avoidable and cannot be overlooked. Mainly caused by not

following certain standards or applying improper methods.
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When to use?
To decide whether an item can be released to customer

To take decisions on production processes.

To decide on product specifications, inspection procedures. To provide instructions to operating and supervisory personnel in the techniques of quality control. To take decisions on statistically significant changes

UCL Process average LCL 29

How to select samples?

Select the samples from an item produced at one
instant of time or as close to that. The next sample would be similar but for item produced at a later timesay an hour. This method is called instant time method.

The second method is to select items produced over a

period of time so that it is representative of all batches. Instant Time method is one of the most commonly used sub-grouping since it provides a time reference for determining assignable causes. As the subgroup size increases, the control limits become closer to the central values which makes the control chart more sensitive to small variations in the process average.
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How to construct?
When no standard is given? 1. Select the appropriate quality characteristic to be studied 2. Record data on a required number of samples , each sample composed of an adequate number of units 3. Determine the control limits from these sample data 4. Analyse the state of control in the process. Too much of variation? Precipitous departures from a state of control and a sudden return to control? Well controlled process? 5. Trace down causes for excessive sample variation and eliminate 6. Repeat steps 2 & 3 until process becomes controlled 7. Establish the values of the control limits and plot the limits on suitable graph paper 8. Record the results of production samples of proper size, which are selected at periodic intervals 9. Take corrective action if the characteristics of the samples exceed the control limits

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How to construct?
When standard is given? 1. Select the appropriate quality characteristic to be studied 2. Establish the value for central tendency and spread that will be used 3. Determine the control limits from these adopted values 4. Establish that these control limits are economically and practically satisfactory for the job 5. Establish the values of the control limits and plot the limits on suitable graph paper 5. Record the results of production samples of proper size, which are selected at periodic intervals 6. Take corrective action if the characteristics of the samples exceed the control limits

.
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Types
There are 2 types of control charts.
1.Measurements or variable charts are used when actual readings are taken. Ex: X- chart; R chart

2. Fraction or percent charts are used with GO and NO-GO or attributes data, countable data Ex: p- Chart; np -Chart c - Chart; u -Chart
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Control charts
1. X - R CHART (Used as pair) Center line=X, UCL = X+ A2 R, LCL = X- A2 R 2. Range Center line =R, UCL= D4 R, LCL = D3 R

R will be the central line for the R chart, X is the grand average The constants A2, D3 and D4 used to calculate the control limits are derived from statistical principles and they should be selected from the statistical table based on the subgroup size.

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Scatter diagram
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6. Scatter diagram
Scatter diagram is a special type of graph in

which two characteristics whose relation to be studied are taken on X and Y axes. A dot at an appropriate point is placed on graph for each observation The pattern made by the scatter of the dots can indicate if there is a relation between the two and if so, whether it is direct or inverse and whether it is strong or mild The purpose is to test hypothetical relationship between two sets of variables or characteristics
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Steps
Steps in preparation of a Scatter diagram: 1. Collect about 50-100 paired samples of data whose relationship to be investigated 2. Enter the data on the data sheet 3. Draw horizontal and vertical axis of the graph 4. Use X-axis for one and Y-axis for the other variable. Place cause values on the horizontal axis and the effect values on the vertical axis

5. Decide appropriate scales. Indicate higher figures on the upper part of the vertical axis and to the right of the horizontal axis.
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Steps
6. For each observation involving the relation between two variables place a dot on the diagram .

7. If data values are repeated and fall on the same point, make concentric circles as needed

8. Observe the pattern of distribution of the dots and infer as follows: a. If the dots are distributed randomly, there is no apparent relationship b. If the dots are distributed closely around such a line, there is a strong relationship c. If the dots are scattered loosely around such a line, there is likelihood of a mild relationship
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Types
y
No relationship between x and y

x
+ve correlation. Increase in x, y increases

xx y
-ve correlation increase in x will cause a decrease in y

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Examples
Sample No. 1 2 3 20 21 Moisture content Elongation X(%) Y(%) 1.5 8.5 1.3 8.1 1.9 8.3 1.9 8.6 1.6 8.1

9.5 9.0 8.5 8.0 7.5

0.5

1.5

2.5
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MOISTURE CONTENT(%)

Stratification

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7. Stratification
Stratification is a technique to present data into different groups or categories to bring out the differences between groups and explain abnormality of histograms. The classification may be based on machines,operators, shifts or any other source of variation The purpose is to ascertain the difference between different categories and to analyze the reasons behind abnormal distribution.
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Procedure
The steps for stratifying data starts with an Abnormal Histogram of composite data the further steps are 1. Examine the data for sources of variations 2. Classify the composite data into different groups 3. Prepare Histograms of reclassified data 4. Examine the histograms of each group of data for Normality 5. Give the new histogram an appropriate title
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Example:
In the example shown below, the maintenance department is skewed to the left. The situation should be analysed to determine why its distribution is different from that of other departments. If the characteristic being measured is a higher is better measurement then find out why the maintenance department is doing right that the other departments could benefit from.

Total organisation

Skewed to the left Negatively skewed

Sales

Engineering

maintenance

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Example
Total No. of break downs of machines in a year Machine no. No. of breakdowns Maintenance priority

I II III IV

56 39 35 59

2 3 4 1

Segregate data machine wise, operator wise, shift wise for identifying the influencing factors 45