Module 5 OSI Model

Understanding Network Basics

OSI Model

Understanding Network Basics

Module 5 OSI Model

Module 5 OSI Model

Overview
It is not possible to view how two computers communicate on a network, but one can see the model which depicts how communication takes place. The most common model that depicts communication over a network is the OSI (Open Systems Communication) Model. The OSI model divides network communications into seven layers: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application. The OSI model only represents what happens theoretically between communicating computers on a network. It does not specify what hardware or software should be supported at each layer. This module deals with the OSI model, its layers, and how data is packaged into frames and packets while being transmitted in between layers and finally sent on to the network. Understanding the OSI model is crucial for a proficient network design and troubleshooting.

Lessons covered in this module

OSI Model and associated Functions.
Understanding Network Basics

Module 5 OSI Model

Lesson 5.1 OSI model and their Functions

Introduction
In the early days, when computers were first connected using a network, sharing of resources was the primary objective. To perform this, International Standards Organization (ISO) wanted to design a standard model. This model can then help the vendors to create the other interpretable devices. As a result of this, OSI Reference model was released in 1984.The OSI Reference Model describes how the data is transmitted from the application layer of the senders computer to the application layer of the receivers computer. Each layer of the OSI Model is described in detail in this lesson.

Understanding Network Basics

Module 5 OSI Model

Lesson 5.1 OSI model and their Functions

Topics covered in this lesson are

Open System Interconnection Reference Model

Understanding Network Basics

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Topic 1 OSI Reference Model

Open System Interconnection Reference (OSI) Model

The Open System Interconnection (OSI) model defines a networking framework for implementing protocols in seven layers developed by the International Standards Organization. The model is called ISO OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model because it deals with connecting open systems for communication with other systems. This model is the best known and the most commonly used guide to describe networking environments. The OSI model is an architecture which divides network communication into seven layers. Each layer covers different network activities, equipments or protocols and has its own functions. A new layer is created when different functions are introduced. The protocols help the other systems to communicate with each other so as to utilize the functions provided by those layers.
Understanding Network Basics

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There must be a minimum number of layers, so that the complexity of the model can be reduced. The data can then be transmitted between interfaces easily. Two or more functions should not be integrated to a single layer. Hence, the OSI model is designed to have seven layers.

The Purpose of the OSI Model

It breaks the network communication into simpler parts that are easier to develop. It allows different types of network hardware and software to communicate with each other. It prevents the changes in one layer from affecting the other layers, so that they can develop more quickly.

Understanding Network Basics

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A brief review of the OSI Model

The Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) model is a layered approach to networking. It has seven layers which has the following order:

Application layer Presentation layer Session layer Transport layer Network layer Data link layer Physical layer

Understanding Network Basics

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Layer 7 - Application layer

The application layer is the entrance point that programs use to access the OSI model and utilize network resources. It is responsible for interacting with the actual user application and is responsible for providing application services such as file transfer, e-mail and network services. It includes network software which directly serves the user with the user interface and application features. It is used when one machine starts communicating with another. Application layer interacts with the application software and represents the service that supports user application and establishes user interface to the network services. This layer is usually made available by using an Application Programmer Interface (API). Some of the common application layer protocols are HTTP, FTP, SMTP and Telnet.

Understanding Network Basics

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The application layer performs a variety of common functions like

It provides network services directly to applications. Determining the resource availability of intended communication. Synchronizing communication. Authentication of intended communication partners. Data transmission

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Layer 6 - Presentation layer

The presentation layer is one of the simplest layers which modifies and translates the data to ensure that it is presented appropriately for the end user. The presentation layer has major functions. They are:
Data Conversion: The sending device can convert text or data into general format American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) for transmission over a network. The receiving computer converts this format (ASCII) to a format required by the destination application. It translates the data from a format from the application layer into an intermediate format. Data Compression: reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network. Data Encryption: Data is converted into encoded form, which cannot be read by unauthorized persons. It encrypts the data for security purposes.

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Layer 5 - Session layer

The session layer primarily starts at the beginning and end of a transmission. At the beginning of the transmission, it makes known its intent to transmit. At the end of the transmission, the Session layer determines the successful transmission. This layer allows session establishment, maintenance and termination between processes running on different stations.

The session layer has some of the protocols which are implemented. They are:
Network File Transfer (NFS) Structured Query Language (SQL) Remote Procedure Call (RPC) AppleTalk Session Protocol (ASP)

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Layer 4 - Transport layer

The transport layer provides the upper layers with a communication channel to the network. This layer collects and reassembles any packets, organizing the segments for delivery and ensuring the consistency of data delivery by detecting and attempting to rectify the problems that are created. The transport layer ensures that the messages are delivered error-free, in sequence, and with no losses or duplications. The transport layer decides the type of service to be provided to the session layer and establishes connection across the network. Transport layer protocol is generally categorized into
Connection-oriented Connectionless protocols

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Connection-oriented The connection-oriented communication is a process which involves establishing a connection between the two hosts. It transmits the data through the devices at the end points which uses protocols to establish connection before sending the data. Transmission control protocol is a connection-oriented protocol. The four steps in connection-oriented communication are as follows

It establishes connection between the sending and receiving station. Synchronization. When connection between the two devices is complete, transfer of information begins. It sends the data packets to the destination station and lets the other end of the station to know the data is receiving. The destination station then sends the data packet back to the source to let the source know that it received the notification message. The sender will always be notified of the data packets failed delivery. Two devices communicate with each other and ensure that packets are delivered error free, in sequence with no losses or duplications.

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Connectionless protocols

In the connectionless communication, no initial connection is established between the two end points. The device transmits the data from one end to the other end without ensuring that the recipient is prepared to receive the data. Internet Protocol and User datagram protocol are connectionless protocol.

Functions of Transport layer

Flow control Flow control is a method of controlling the rate at which the device sends data. The flow control has three standard flavors. They are:
Buffering Congestion Notification Windowing

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Buffering

Buffering is one of the simplest methods used in conjunction with the other methods of flow control. The input buffer usually can hold enough data packets, but sometimes the data flows at faster rate than the receiving device can process it. This is a signaling technique used by data transmission systems in order to indicate the status of network congestion. Devices that are communicating data across a network rely on congestion notification to decide when to send or delay the transmission of data packets.

Congestion Notification

Windowing

Windowing is a technique used to deliver the data packets to the recipient in the same order in which they were transmitted to have a consistent, connection-oriented data transfer.
Understanding Network Basics

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Layer 3 - Network layer

Network layer is one of the layers in OSI model that defines how internetworks or interconnected network function. Network layer added headers containing logical address of the device. Network layer is concerned with getting data from one computer to another computer even if it is on a remote network. The main purpose of network layer is to decide which physical path the information should follow from its source to its destination. The network layer provides functional and procedural means of transferring data from source to destination over one or more networks. Two important aspects required to send the data from one device to another are
Logical address related source and destination. Path through which the data has to be sent to reach the destination.

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The important functions of network layer are:

Routing and forwarding data. It is concerned with physical and logical addressing of device, error detection, flow control, segmentation and sequencing of data. Internet Protocol (IP) handles physical and logical addressing of workstations.

Functions of network layer

Logical Addressing: Network layer is also responsible for logical addressing. It is also known as network addressing or layer 3 addressing. Routing: The main function of the network layer is to move the data packets through a series of device in a network. Fragmentation: The network layer has to send message to the data link layer for transmission. But the data link layer has limits on the length that can be sent from the network layer. Error Handling: The network layer also includes error detection and recovery. Special protocols are used at the network layer to allow devices that are logically connected and which also allow to exchange information about the status of hosts on the network or the devices.
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Layer 2 - Data Link layer

Data Link Layer is concerned with unique identification of each device and provides physical means of data transfer. It data link layer provides a system through which network devices can share the communication channel. This function is called media-access control (MAC). It also provides error-free transfer of data frames from one node to another over the physical layer, allowing the layers above it to assume almost error-free transmission over the link. The data link layer is mainly divided into two sub layers:
Logical link layer Media access control

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Logical link layer (LLC)

The logical link layer manages the communication between devices over a single link of a network and enables multiple higher-layer protocols to share a single physical data link.

Media access layer (MAC)

Media access layer manages protocol access to the physical network medium and determines the hardware addresses.

Data link layer mainly deals with the following aspects:

Arbitration Physical addressing Error detection Data framing

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Arbitration: Arbitration is the method to access a single data channel when multiple hosts are using simultaneously. Physical addressing: The physical address is designed to uniquely identify the devices. It is the required component to transfer the data packets from one end to the other end of the device, specified with the appropriate physical addresses. Error detection: Data link layer determines the error problems which occur during the transmission of data. Introducing a trailer called FCS, which detects the error before it sends the data packets to the remote machine, does it. FCS (Frame Check Sequence) uses a Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) is often used to allow the station receiving data to detect if it was received correctly. Data framing: The data link layers of both the machines must be using the same frame types, so that the data packets will recognize the actual data contents.
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Layer 1 - Physical layer

The physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and is concerned with the transmission and reception of the unstructured raw bit stream over a physical medium. It describes the electrical/optical, mechanical, and functional interfaces to the physical medium, and carries the signals for all of the higher layers. The physical layer is the most basic network layer, providing only the means of transmitting raw bits. Some of the functions of physical layer involve
Modification of the data into simple digital signal pattern as ones and zeros. Transmission of raw bit stream over physical cable. Establishment and termination of connection to communication medium such as cables. Communication resources are effectively shared among multiple users. Conversion of digital data and signals to transmit over network.

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The following table describes the different layers and its functions operating

in the corresponding layers.

Layer Application Layer (layer 7) Functions of the corresponding Layers

Interface between the user and the Application Provides Services that support User application like Email, File transfer etc Provides Application Programming Interface The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted. Encoding data in a standard, agreed upon way Data compression and Encryption works in this Layer Responsible for Protocol Conversion

Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

Session Layer (Layer 5)

Handles Remote Procedure Calls Establishes and Maintains Connection Provides Synchronization between Communicating Computers Provides Token Management and Dialogue Control
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Transport Layer (Layer 4)

Ensures Error Free Delivery of Packets Prevents Duplication and Omission of packets, Flow Control TCP/SPX provides connection oriented service and safe delivery of packets UDP provides connection less service and safe delivery of packets is not ensured Conversion of Logical address into physical address (ARP/RARP) Routing of Packets is carried out by this layer Error reporting regarding packet delivery (ICMP), It determines the best route Controls flow of dataPerforms error checking Organizes Data in to Logical Frames The Hardware Address (MAC Address) is resolved here Communicates through switches, bridges and Intelligent hubs signals are transmitted and bits are represented Determines the Cards, cables used for transmission Defines the electrical and the Mechanical Interfaces available for data transfer Communicates through hubs, switches, cables, connectors
Understanding Network Basics

Network Layer (Layer 3)

Datalink Layer (Layer 2)

Physical Layer (Layer 1)

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Communication in an OSI Reference Model

The OSI reference model shows the communication between the layers and the data transmission between the two systems. It is divided into the upper three layers and lower four layers. The upper three layers of the OSI model deal with the application issues which require access to resource on the network and usually are implemented only in software. The lower four layers provide the basic communication service using the various protocols. Protocols are set of rules that are used for communication between any two systems in a network.

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Data Encapsulation

The interaction between the protocols operating at the different layers of the OSI model takes the form of each protocol adding headers to the information it receives from the above layer. The information from the receiving computers flows upwards discarding the corresponding header at each layer.

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The following table shows how the data is converted in each layer

between the systems in the OSI Model.

Layers Application User Interaction Presentation Data Representation and Encryption Data Data Data Conversion

Session Inter Host Communication Transport End to End Connections and Reliability

Data Segments

Network Path Determination and IP Logical Addressing Datalink MAC and LLC (Physical, Addressing) Physical Media Signal and Binary transmission
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Packets

Frames Bits

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The data conversion in each layer takes place as follows:

The data is created in the application, presentation and session layers from the users input. The transport layer converts the data into segments. The network layer converts the segments into packets or datagrams. The data-link layer converts the packets into frames. The physical layer converts the frames into bits.

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Summary
The Open System Interconnection (OSI) model defines a networking framework

for implementing protocols in seven layers which is developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO). The OSI model has a layered architecture which divides network communication into seven layers. The OSI reference model has seven layers which has the following order:

Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data link Physical

The major functions of network layer are logical addressing, routing,

fragmentation and error handling. Data link layer is mainly divided into two sub layers Logical link layer and Media access control.
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