Chapter 2 : Element in Cells

Mr Khairul Hafezad Bin Abdullah Center for Foundation Studies Management and Science ni!ersit" #MS $ 2%%&

Introduction
What are element? Elements - Substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by chemical reactions Example: carbon, oxygen, hydrogen What are compound? Compounds - Substance that consisting of two or more elements combined in a fixed ratio Example: sodium chloride (Na l!

Introduction
carbon oxygen hydrogen nitrogen make up "#$ of li%ing matter main elements

phosphorus nitrogen sulphur calcium potassium a few other elements

make up &$ of li%ing matter trace elements

'race elements
( 'race elements are those re)uired by an organism in only minute )uantities Some trace elements, such as iron (*e! , are needed by all forms of life+ others are only re)uired only by certain species Example: In %ertebrates (animal with backbones!, the element iodine (I! is an essential ingredient of a hormone produced by the thyroid gland, -n iodine deficiency in the diet causes the thyroid gland to grow to abnormal si.e, a condition called goiter

0ain elements
, 1, 2 (main elements!

-//

-//

3 N, S

3 N, 4

arbohydrate /ipid

4rotein Nucleic acid

5ater

2rganic molecules
What is organic molecule? - chemical compounds that contain carbon - organic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons (

5hat do these words mean6

0acromolecule
- large complex assemblies - in many cases, these macromolecules are polymers, molecules built by linking together a large number of small, similar chemical subunits

Next Word..

Polygons Polyester Polygamy

A Polymer
Here are some analogies to better understand what polymers and monomers are.

EXAMPLE of POLYMER A TRAIN A NECKLACE

MONOMER ? ?

If the train is the whole polymer, what would be the small groups that make up the train? If the necklace is the polymer, what are the monomers that make up the necklace?

A Polymer
Here are some analogies to better understand what polymers and monomers are.

EXAMPLE of POLYMER A TRAIN A NECKLACE

MONOMER THE CARS EACH PEARL

If the train is the whole polymer, what would be the small groups that make up the train? If the necklace is the polymer, what are the monomers that make up the necklace?

7uilding macromolecule
8ehydration synthesis
( -7iological macromolecules are polymers formed by linking subunits together -the remo%al of 921 group and 91 -creates a water molecule for e%ery bond formed -Energy is re)uired to break the chemical bonds when the water is extracted from the subunits ( ( (

1ydrolysis
-:e%erse of hydration -7reaking the bond between subunits -- hydrogen atom is attached to one subunit and a hydroxyl group to the other, breaking a specific co%alent bond in the macromolecules -:elease the energy that was stored in the bonds that were broken

( ( (

A deh"dration reaction remo!es a 'ater molecule( forming a ne' bond

A h"drol"sis reaction adds a 'ater molecule( brea)ing a bond

3 4

The Big 4
There are 4 types of biochemical macromolecules

Three out of the 4 types of biochemical macromolecules can be found on food nutrition labels

The ! biochemical molecules found on a nutrition label Loo at the label to the are"

left. ! of the 4 macromolecules can be found in foods. 1____________________

(13 grams in this product) 2____________________ (0 grams in this product)

(9 grams in this product) 3____________________

The 4th type of biochemical macromolecules are the

NUCLEIC ACIDS

The types of Nucleic Acids #e #ill study are" $NA %$eoxyriboNucleic Acid& 'NA %'iboNucleic Acid&

L(T)* +(,-N W-T. /A'+0.1$'AT(*

They are the main source for the body to gain energy. They are our fuel They make up the cell wall in plants which allow them to grow tall, without this carbohydrate, a plant would be a mushy mess This type of carbohydrate is called Cellulose.

THI!"#

$%&'() *!*&+, and $*-- .%--(

$arbohydrate *efinition # The carbohydrate are group of molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen, and o/ygen in the molar ratio 0#1#0.Their empirical formula is 2$H134n, n) the number of carbon atoms 5 'ecause they contain many carbon6hydrogen 2$6H4 bonds, which release energy when they are broken, carbohydrates are well suited for energ" storage

8orms of carbohydrate

7onosaccharides 5 (implest of the carbohydrate

5 7ost important # +lucose # C,H-2%,$ . for energ" storage

9isaccharides 5 : double sugar;

5 contain two monosaccharides rings <oined by a glycosidic linkage 57ost important # maltose( sucrose ( lactose

=olysachharides 5 7acromolecules made

up of monosaccharide subunits 5 7ost important# Cellulose( starch

TH*&* %&* 1 T,=*( 38 $%&'3H,9&%T*(

(imple $omple/

Simple Sugars

Complex Carbohydrates hat are they!

Complex Cabohydrates are polymers made up of many monomers. Most also taste starchy.

/omplex /arbohydrates

It>s drawing time

@6carbon sugars

7onosaccharide

36carbon sugar +lucose 8ructose +alactose

?6carbon sugar

A 6form of glucose

B6 form of glucose

9isaccharide

=olysaccharide

5 macromolecules made up of
monosaccharide subunits. 5(tarch is a polysaccharide used by plant to store energy. 5 $ellulose is a polysaccharide that serDes as a structural building material in plants.

C (ugars like sucrose and lactose are disaccharide, composed of two monosaccharides linked by a coDalent bond

5These polysaccharides consists entirely of glucose molecules linked together into chains, and special enEymes are reFuired to break the links

(tructural carbohydrates#

$ellulose 5 chief component of cell walls 5 the starch6degrading enEymes that occur in most organisms cannot break the bond between two beta6 glucose sugars 5 Its cleaDage reFuires an enEyme most organisms lack 5 'ecause cellulose cannot be broken readily, it works well as a biological structural material and occurs widely in this role in plants

$hitin 5 (tructural building material in insects, many fungi, and certain other organisms 5 7odified form of cellulose with a nitrogen group added to the glucose units 5 .hen cross6linked by proteins, it forms a tough,resistant surface material that serDes as the hard e/oskeleton or arthropods such as insects and crustaceans

Cellulose
2ain function
buildin3 material for structure

/hitin
2ain function
buildin3 material for structure

LI"IDS A#E NE$T

They are a great source of (T3&*9 *!*&+, so we haDe it in the future. They I!(G-%T* the body to maintain normal body temperature and they $G(HI3! the internal organs for protection. They produce hormones for the body called (T*&I39( They waterproof surfaces of animals,plants, and fruits6 these are wa/es THI!"# .aterproof, insulate, steriods, energy, cushion :.I(* $;

LI"IDSSome i%teresti%g i%&o

58ruits produce a wa/y coating to keep from drying out. 5 The cells in a tulip make a wa/ which helps coat the leaDes. 5*ar wa/ traps dust, sand, and other foreign particles from going deeper into the ear and causing damage. 5'eeswa/6 a structural material to hold honey in the hiDe

5In plants6 in the seeds 666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666 5In animals6 in adipose tissue, connectiDe tissue, in animals 666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666 5-ipids make up the cell membrane of all cells. .hat>s that double layer called?

Lipids i% a%imal
e%ergy storage 'ushio% i%sulatio%

Lipids i% a%imal

-ipids are chains 2polymers4 made of monomers. The most common monomer of lipids is

Lipids ( Trigelyserides
ester linkage

'omposed

o& ) gly'erol a%d * &atty a'ids

glycerol fatty acid chain fat molecule

also 'alled

trigly'eride s

E
This is a triglyceride molecule

Saturated a%d U%saturated +atty A'id

Lipids
%t room temperature, the molecules of a saturated fat are packed closely, forming a solid. %t room temperature, the molecules of an unsaturated fat cannot pack together closely enough to solidify 2kinks4.

"hospholipids
1 3lycerol4 2 fatty acids4 and a phosphate

3roup

L-P-$*

N0W 0NT0 P'0T(-N*

They are the ma<or structural molecules in liDing things for growth and repair # muscles, ligaments, tendons, bones, hair, skin, nailsI! 8%$T %-- $*-- 7*7'&%!*( haDe protein in them They make up antibodies in the immune system They make up enEymes for helping chemical reactions They makeup non6steriod hormones which THI!"# =roteins) membranes, enEymes, antibodies, non6 steriod hormones, structural molecules, :7*%!(;

The following slides giDe you a little more in depth info on things that are made of proteins

Without these particular structural proteins, we would look more like this.

This is skin

This is a nail

The cell membrane surrounds everything in a cell so it doesnt leak out. It is kind of like the balloon in a water balloon. The cell membrane is made mostly of protein AND lipids.

These are where the hormone producing glands are located in your body.

2The yellow stuff is thyroid hormone4

Thyroid hormone regulates how fast your body uses energy. If you have an over active thyroid, you use energy quickly and tend to be very thin and have a hard time putting on weight. If you have an under active thyroid gland, you use energy very slowly and tend to carry more body fat and have a difficult time losing it. Dont be quick to think you have a thyroid problem if you are overweight, chances are its actually your eating and exercise habits!

5In plant foods6 in the cell membranes 5In animal products6 in the cell membranes6 in the muscles or liDing things6 cows, chicken, fish

Proteins

Proteins
%side from the protein found in animal sources protein can also be found in fruits, Degetables, grains, and nuts. 2it <ust does not haDe as many amino acids4

=roteins are made of long chains 2polymers4 made of monomers. %ll proteins are made of the monomer

amino acids polypeptide protein

amino acids" monomers of proteins

Amino acids connected by peptide bonds

=&3T*I!( *efinition : % protein is composed of one or more long chains, or polypeptides , composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds 82/4 # 04 Enz"me catal"sis : globular proteins which facilititates chemical reactions 14 *efense : Gse their shapes to :recogniEe; foreign microbes and cancer cells 34 /ransport 44 Support ?4 Motion : transport specific small molecules and ions : play structural roles H etc# keratin in hair : contractile proteins also play key roles in the cell>s cytoskeleton and in moDing materials within cells @4 0egulation : play many regulatory roles within the cell, turning on and shutting off genes during deDelopment

protei%s
1rimar" structure The specific amino acid seFuence of protein.

Secondar" structure: The folding of the amino acid chain by hydrogen bonding into characteristic coils and pleats is called secondary structure. */ample# fibrous proteins

/ertiar" structure # The final folding and twisting that results in the final three dimensional shape of a polypeptide shape is called globular protein. */ample# enEymes

2uarternar" structure # .hen two or more polypeptide chains associate to form functional protein, the indiDidual chains are referred to as subunits of the protein */ample # Hemoglobin 2 two A6chain subunits I two J6 chain subunits4

Water
Chemistry of water - 567 of earth is co8ered by li9uid #ater : 2;! of or3anisms body is composed of #ater4 essential for reproduction and or3anism 3ro#th : colorless4 odorless4 tasteless Atomi' stru'ture o& ,ater

ater is a "olar ater 'o%sists o& a% oxyge% atom 2ole'ule bou%d to t,o 3has oppositely hydroge% atoms by 'harged e%ds t,o si%gle 'o-ale%t bo%ds. /xyge% has u%paired 0 paired ele'tro%s ,hi'h gi-es it a slightly %egati-e 'harge ,hile 1ydroge% has %o u%paired ele'tro%s a%d shares all others ,ith /xyge% Lea-es mole'ule ,ith positi-ely a%d %egati-e 'harged e%ds

14D#/5EN B/NDS
1old ,ater Extraordi%ary

mole'ules together Ea'h ,ater mole'ule 'a% &orm a maximum o& 4 hydroge% bo%ds The hydroge% bo%ds 6oi%i%g ,ater mole'ules are ,ea78 about )9:;th as stro%g as 'o-ale%t bo%ds. They &orm8 brea78 a%d re&orm ,ith great &re<ue%'y

"roperties that are a result o& hydroge% bo%ds.

Cohesi-e beha-ior #esists 'ha%ges i%

temperature 1igh heat o& -apori=atio% Expa%ds ,he% it &ree=es >ersatile sol-e%t

ater mole'ules &orm 1ydroge% bo%ds

slightl" positi!e charge

h"drogen bond bet'een #3$ and #4$ areas of different 'ater molecules

slightl" negati!e charge

KL

ater?s "roperties
Cohesio% Adhesio% Capillarity 1igh Spe'i&i' 1eat 1igh 1eat o& >apori=atio% Solid ,ater @i'eA is less de%se tha% li<uid Sol-e%t Tra%spare%t

Cohesio%

ater 'li%gs to polar mole'ules through hydroge% bo%di%g Cohesio% re&ers to attra'tio% to other ,ater mole'ules. respo%sible &or sur&a'e te%sio%
a

measure o& the &or'e %e'essary to stret'h or

Adhesio%
Adhesio%

re&ers to attra'tio% to other substa%'es. ater is adhesi-e to a%y substa%'e ,ith ,hi'h it 'a% &orm hydroge%

Capillary a'tio%

)s n a h t l Al to en og g5 r d h" ndin bo

water evaporates from leaves = transpiration

adhesion, cohesion and capillary action

'ater ta)en up b" roots

5trees ha!e specialized structures to transport 'ater: 6"lem and phloem 7plumbing8 5 'ater molecules are 7dragged8 from the roots to the top of the tree b" capillar" action and cohesion: h"drogen bonds help 'ater molecules to each other

1igh Spe'i&i' 1eat

1igh spe'i&i' heat

Amou%t o& heat that must be absorbed or expe%ded to 'ha%ge the temperature o& )g o& a substa%'e )o C.

Water molecules can absorb a lot of heat before they e8aporate

1igh 1eat o& >apori=atio%

1igh heat o& -apori=atio%

Amou%t o& e%ergy re<uired to 'ha%ge )g o& li<uid ,ater i%to a gas @BCD 'aloriesA. large %umber o& hydroge% bo%ds bro7e% ,he% heat e%ergy is applied

As a li<uid e-aporates8 the sur&a'e

o& the li<uid that remai%s behi%d 'ools 3 E-aporati-e 'ooli%g. E-aporati-e 'ooli%g moderates temperature i% la7es a%d po%ds a%d pre-e%ts terrestrial orga%isms &rom o-erheati%g. E-aporatio% o& ,ater &rom the lea-es o& pla%ts or the s7i% o& a%imals remo-es ex'ess heat.

This is 3ood for us<< They pull a lot of heat a#ay from our bodies #hen they e8aporate.

EU%i-ersalF Sol-e%t
A li<uid that is a 'ompletely homoge%eous
mixture o& t,o or more substa%'es is 'alled a solutio%. A sugar 'ube i% a glass o& ,ater ,ill e-e%tually dissol-e to &orm a u%i&orm mixture o& sugar a%d ,ater. The dissol-i%g age%t is the sol-e%t a%d the substa%'e that is dissol-ed is the solute. I% our example8 ,ater is the sol-e%t a%d sugar the solute. I% a% a<ueous solutio%8 ,ater is the sol-e%t. ater is %ot really a u%i-ersal sol-e%t8 but it is

ater is a% e&&e'ti-e sol-e%t as it 'a% &orm hydroge% bo%ds. ater 'li%gs to polar mole'ules 'ausi%g them to be soluble i% ,ater. 1ydrophili' 3 attra'ted to ,ater ater te%ds to ex'lude %o%polar

ater tra%sports mole'ules dissol-ed i% it

Blood8 a ,ater3based solutio%8 tra%sports

mole'ules o& %utrie%ts a%d ,astes orga%isms Nutrie%ts dissol-ed i% ,ater get tra%sported through pla%ts U%i'ellular orga%isms that li-e i% ,ater absorb %eeded dissol-ed substa%'es

Solid ,ater @i'eA is less de%se tha% li<uid

I'e is less de%se tha% ,ater( the

mole'ules are spread out to their maximum dista%'e De%sity G mass9-olume

same mass but a larger volume

&ree=e solid be'ause i'e &loats

water expands as it solidifies water reaches maximum density at 4-degrees C water freezes from the top down organisms can still live in the water underneath the ice during winter

ater is Tra%spare%t
The &a't that ,ater is 'lear allo,s light

to pass through it
A<uati' pla%ts 'a% re'ei-e su%light Light 'a% pass through the eyeball to

re'eptor 'ells i% the ba'7

p1
ater io%i=es i%to 1H a%d /13 1:/ 1H a%d /13
p1 s'ale expresses hydroge% io% @1HA

'o%'e%tratio% i% a solutio%.

logarithmi' s'ale ra%gi%g &rom ;3)4 %eutral G I Belo, I G a'id Abo-e I G base ater at :BoC 'o%tai%s )9);8;;;8;;; mole o& 1H io%s G ); 3I moles9liter

p1

G 3log J1HK

A'ids
A'ids disso'iate i% ,ater to i%'rease the

'o%'e%tratio% o& 1H.

1a-e ma%y 1H io%s Sour taste 1Cl is hydro'hlori' a'id or stoma'h a'id

Bases
Bases 'ombi%e ,ith 1H io%s ,he% dissol-ed

i% ,ater8 thus de'reasi%g 1H 'o%'e%tratio%.

1a-e ma%y /13 @hydroxideA io%s Bitter taste Na/1 G sodium hydroxide or ba7i%g soda

Bu&&ers
Bu&&ers
a't as a reser-oir &or hydroge% io%s8

do%ati%g or remo-i%g them &rom solutio% as %e'essary /&&er prote'tio% &rom extreme p1 le-els "rodu'ed %aturally by orga%isms(
/rga%isms 'a%?t tolerate mu'h p1 'ha%ge Cells &u%'tio% best ,ithi% a %arro, p1 ra%ge