PAGE 1- ALL ABOUT CELLS!! PAGE 2-SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES!! PAGE 3-THE LUNGS AND BREATHING!!

PAGE 4- THE NERVOUS SYSTEM!! PAGE 5- DIET & EXCERSICE!! PAGE 6- ENZYMES & DIGESTION!!

 Just how a house is built out of bricks, animals and plants are made up of cells. Cell are the building blocks of all living things. There are differences between the cells that make up animals and those of plants. Animals have a skeleton to keep them in shape. Their cells are soft to the touch. Plants do not have a skeleton-they stay upright because they have a tough wall around each cell. The main difference between plant cells and animal cells is that plan cells have a cell wall.

 A nucleus that controls the action of the cell. Cytoplasm- a mixture of chemicals that include nutrition that has passed into a cell wall and waste products on their way out of the cell. A cell membrane-this allows nutrients in and waste products out In addition, plants cell have: Chloroplasts- these contain a green chemical called Chlorophyll that absorbs energy from the sun. This energy is needed for the plant to make food. A cell wall to keep the cell in shape.

 Animal cells are rigid but plants cells are floppy. True/False Only plants cells have chloroplasts. True/False The Nucleus of a cell controls its actions. True/False

There are lots of different types of cell that make up an animal or plant. Cells of the same type are grouped together to make tissue. All the cells in a tissue carry out a similar task. Several different tissue make up an organ.

Key Point- Cells make tissue and tissue makes organs.

 Your Body is made up of a number of organs, each of which has a different job. Some important organ are: The eye-this contains muscle tissue to move the eye ball, nerve tissue to send information to the brain and connective tissue that form the white of the eye. The skin-this contains nerve tissue, sweat gland tissue and blood vessel tissue. The heart- this contains lining tissue, tendon tissue and connective tissue.

Materials can be classified as solids, liquids and gases. However all materials are made up from tiny particles. The word material is often used to describe a type of fabric, such as cotton. In science it is used to describe anything around you. Clay, water and air are all materials.

These 3 diagrams show the arrangement of particles in solids, liquids and gases.

State

Arrangement of particles

Movement of Particles

Solid

Particles closely packed together.

Little movement-only vibrations.

Liquid

Particles close together but not regularly arranged.

Particles only have some movement.

Gases

Particles widely spaced.

Particles move rapidly in all directions.

The particles in a gas are moving rapidly. There is no pattern to the movement. It is said to be random. The particles hit the walls of the container. The more times the particle hit the walls, the higher the gas pressure. If the temperature is raised, the particles move faster so there are more collisions with the walls of the container. As a result the pressure increases. The gas is compressed into a smaller volume without changing temperature. Again there will be more collisions with the walls. So there is an increase in pressure.

1. In which state- solid, liquid or gas- are the particles most widely spread? Gas 2. In which state are the particles moving faster? Gas 3. In which state are the particles regularly arranged? Solid

 RESPIRATION EQUTAIONGlucose+Oxygen Carbon Dioxide+Water+Energy. Respiration takes place inside the cytoplasm of cells. Respiration is a chemical reaction that breaks down glucose from food to release energy using oxygen. Respiration is NOT breathing in and out.

 EVERY LIVING CELL, IN EVERY LIVING ORGANISM USES RESPIRATION TO MAKE ENERGY ALL THE TIME. Smoking & Lung Disease-

Tar-Contained in tobacco smoke can cause cancer of the lung cells. It can also irritate air passengers and make them narrower, causing a smokers cough Bronchitis- is aggravated by smoking. The cillia stops beating, so mucus collects in the lungs along with dirt and bacteria. Emphysema- Is when the chemicals in tobacco smoke weaken the Alveoli walls. The lung tissue can be damaged and make breathing difficult. Nicotine- Makes arteries narrower. Carbon Monoxide-Stops red blood cells carrying oxygen.

Drink Drinking alcohol in large quantities is extremely bad for health and our social life. Long term it cause brain, liver damage. Drugs Drugs can be prescribed by doctors or brought illegally or legally. It often reduces a persons IQ. Cocaine Blocks the Arteries. Tobacco damages the circulatory and breathing system.

 Breathing- a process in which the lungs inhale oxygen and exhale carbon-dioxide out of the body. Gas Exchange- the breathing system absorbs oxygen and excretes (gets rid of) carbon dioxide. Ventilation- the flow of the air is called ventilation/breathing.

The nervous system allows the body to respond to changes in the environment. This is a process usually coordinated by the brain. Reflex actions are extra-rapid responses to stimuli, and this process also involves the nervous system, but bypasses the brain.

Receptors
Receptors are groups of specialised cells. They can detect changes in the environment, which are called stimuli, and turn them into electrical impulses. Receptors are often located in the sense organs, such as the ear, eye and skin. Each organ has receptors sensitive to particular kinds of stimulus.

sense organs Skin Tongue Nose Eyes Ears

receptors sensitive to touch, pressure, pain and temperature chemicals in food chemicals in the air light sound and position of the head

The central nervous system - CNS - in humans consists of the brain and spinal cord. When a receptor is stimulated, it sends a signal along the nerve cells - neurones - to the brain. The brain then co-ordinates the response. Effectors An effector is any part of the body that produces the response. Here are some examples of effectors: a muscle contracting to move the arm a muscle squeezing saliva from the salivary gland a gland releasing a hormone into the blood

KEYWORDSHORMONE- A HORMONE IS CHEMICAL MESSENGERS PRODUCED IN GLANDS AND CARRIED BY THE BLOOD TO SPECIFIC ORGANS IN THE BODY.

Neurones are nerve cells. They carry information as tiny electrical signals. There are three different types of neurones, each with a slightly different function. Sensory neurones carry signals from receptors to the spinal cord and brain.

Relay neurones carry messages from one part of the CNS to another.
Motor neurones carry signals from the CNS to effectors. The diagram below shows a typical neurone - in this case, a motor neurone. It has tiny branches at each end and a long fibre carries the signals.
KEYWORDS RECEPTORS- SPECIALISED CELLS THAT CAN DETECT CHANGES IN THE STIMULI

The diagram below shows a typical neurone - in this case, a motor neurone. It has tiny branches at each end and a long fibre carries the signals.

Reflex actions When a receptor is stimulated, it sends a signal to the central nervous system, where the brain co-ordinates the response. But sometimes a very quick response is needed, one that does not need the involvement of the brain. This is a reflex action. Reflex actions are rapid and happen without us thinking. For example, you would pull your hand away from a hot flame without thinking about it. This is what happens: receptor detects a stimulus - change in the environment sensory neurone sends signal to relay neurone motor neurone sends signal to effector effector produces a response.

The way the iris in our eye adjusts the size of the pupil in response to bright or dim light is also a reflex action. In bright light: Radial muscles of the iris relax. Circular muscles of the iris contract. Less light enters the eye through the contracted pupil. In dim light: Radial muscles of the iris contract. Circular muscles of the iris relax. More light enters the eye through the dilated pupil.

Which part of the nervous system is not involved in producing reflex actions? Brain Spinal cord Receptors

What is a synapse? A type of reflex action A junction between two neurones The long fibre in a nerve cell

What is the eye an example of? A stimulus A sense organ

A relay neurone

 Regular exercise and a balanced diet are needed to keep the body healthy. Too little food leads to a person being underweight and prone to illness, while too much food and not enough exercise leads to a person being overweight and prone to other illnesses. Excess cholesterol increases the risk of heart disease, and excess salt causes high blood pressure and increases the risk of heart disease and stroke.

potatoes, pasta, bread, bananas, sugar and rice

A source of energy for other life processes. Sometimes referred to as , which is actually just one - very common - type of carbohydrate.

cheese, butter, margarine and oils Fats are needed to make cell membranes and to insulate our bodies. They also contain important fat-soluble vitamins.

wholemeal bread, fruit, vegetables and pulses The fibre or roughage in our diet is not digested, but is important because it allows the muscles in our intestines to move food through our system by peristalsis.

meat, fish, eggs and cheese

Growth and repair.

A healthy diet contains all the different nutrients in the correct amounts, and provides the right amount of energy for each individual. An unbalanced diet can lead to a person becoming malnourished. They may be too thin or too fat as a result, and they may suffer from deficiency diseases. Chemical reactions Respiration is the chemical reaction that allows cells to release energy from food. The metabolic rate is the speed at which such chemical reactions take place in the body. It varies because of several factors, including age gender - male or female the proportion of muscle to fat in the body the amount of exercise and other physical activity genetic traits The metabolic rate increases as we exercise and stays high for a while afterwards.

 Not enough food If you don't eat enough food, you will become too thin and may suffer from health problems. These include: reduced resistance to infection deficiency diseases Deficiency diseases include rickets - which affects proper growth of the skeleton and is caused by insufficient vitamin D - and kwashiorkor - which causes a swollen abdomen and is a result of insufficient protein. Problems such as these are more likely to affect people in the developing world, where it can be more difficult to get enough food.

 Too much food In warm weather, or when you don't do much exercise, you do not need to eat as much food as when it is cold or when you have exerted yourself physically. If you eat too much food without taking enough exercise, you will become overweight. Very fat people are described as obese. Overweight people may suffer from health problems, including: diabetes - an illness in which the body is unable to control the amount of sugar in the blood arthritis - an illness in which the joints become worn, inflamed and painful high blood pressure heart disease

 The heart is an organ that needs its own supply of blood to keep it working. If the blood supply is reduced, the heart muscle will not work properly and will become weaker. A heart attack happens when part of the heart does not get any blood because of a blocked artery.

 Cholesterol is a substance found in the blood. It is made in the liver and is needed for healthy cell membranes. However, too much cholesterol in the blood increases the risk of heart disease, and of diseased arteries. Good and bad cholesterol The bloodstream transports cholesterol around the body attached to proteins. The combination of cholesterol and protein is called lipoprotein, and there are two types. Low-density lipoproteins - LDLs - carry cholesterol from the liver to the cells. High-density lipoproteins - HDLs - carry excess cholesterol back to the liver.

 LDLs are often called 'bad' cholesterol because they lead to fat building up on artery walls, which causes heart disease. HDLs are often called good cholesterol because they help to stop fat building up in the arteries. A high proportion of HDLs to LDLs is good for a healthy heart. Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated oils - as found in vegetable oils - help to reduce cholesterol levels in the blood, and also increase the proportion of HDLs compared with LDLs. There are also drugs that can improve high blood pressure and high cholesterol levels.

 Table salt is sodium chloride. Too much salt in the diet can lead to high blood pressure, which in turn leads to an increased risk of heart disease and strokes. Salt is found naturally in many kinds of food, but more is added by food manufacturers - and many people add even more when they are eating. Processed foods often have a high proportion of salt and fat. Salt added to food during processing accounts for about twothirds of the average salt intake. On average, men in the UK eat about 10g of salt a day and women about 8g a day. However, food scientists recommend no more than 6g of salt a day in the diet. Reducing the amount of salt in the diet will help to reduce the risk of heart disease, and to a greater extent the risk of suffering a stroke.

What is the metabolic rate? The speed at which chemical reactions take place in our bodies The speed at which our food is digested The speed at which we eat After exercise ... ...the metabolic rate stays permanently high. ... the metabolic rate stays permanently low. ... the metabolic rate stays high for a while.

What is a feature of low-density lipoproteins (LDLs)? They are 'good' cholesterol. They carry excess cholesterol back to the liver. They carry cholesterol from the liver to the cells of the body.

 Enzymes are biological catalysts. There are optimum temperatures and pH values at which their activity is greatest. Enzymes are also proteins, and usually denatured above about 45C. Enzymes are important in respiration and digestion. Aerobic respiration releases energy from glucose. Digestion is the breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins and fats into small soluble substances that can be absorbed into the blood. Lipases and proteases are used in biological detergents, and enzymes are used in the manufacture of food and drink.

Enzymes are biological catalysts - catalysts are substances that increase the rate of chemical reactions without being used up. Enzymes are also proteins that are folded into complex shapes that allow smaller molecules to fit into them. The place where these substrate molecules fit is called the active site.

 If the shape of the enzyme changes, its active site may no longer work. We say the enzyme has been denatured. They can be denatured by high temperatures or extremes of ph Note that it is wrong to say the enzyme has been killed. Although enzymes are made by living things, they are proteins, and not alive.

Temperature and enzymes As the temperature increases, so does the rate of reaction. But very high temperatures denature enzymes. The graph shows the typical change in an enzyme's activity with increasing temperature. The enzyme activity gradually increases with temperature until around 37C, or body temperature. Then, as the temperature continues to rise, the rate of reaction falls rapidly, as heat energy denatures the enzyme.

pH and enzymes Changes in pH alter an enzymes shape. Different enzymes work best at different pH values. The optimum pH for an enzyme depends on where it normally works. For example, intestinal enzymes have an optimum pH of about 7.5. Enzymes in the stomach have an optimum pH of about 2.

 Enzymes in cells catalyse photosynthesis, protein synthesis - joining amino acids together, and aerobic respiration. Aerobic respiration Respiration is not the same thing as breathing. That is more properly called ventilation. Instead, respiration is a chemical process in which energy is released from food substances, such as glucose - a sugar. Aerobic respiration needs oxygen to work. Most of the chemical reactions involved in the process happen in tiny objects inside the cell cytoplasm, called mitochondria. This is the equation for aerobic respiration: glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water (+ energy)

 Mitochondria- Structures in the cytoplasm of all cell where respiration takes place. Aerobic- exercise involves oxygen consumption by the body, if the exercise is not too fast and is steady, the heart can supply all the oxygen the muscles need.

The energy released by respiration is used to make large molecules from smaller ones. In plants, for example, sugars, nitrates and other nutrients are converted into amino acids. Amino acids can then join together to make proteins. The energy is also used: to allow muscles to contract in animals to maintain a constant body temperature in birds and mammals

The enzymes involved in respiration, photosynthesis and protein synthesis work inside cells. Other enzymes are produced by specialised cells and released from them; the digestive enzymes are like this. They pass out into the gut, where they catalyse the breakdown of food molecules. Different enzymes catalyse different digestion reactions. Enzymes and their reactions catalysed
amylase starch sugars protease proteins amino acids

lipase

lipids fatty acids + glycerol

 Different parts of the gut produce different enzymes. Where enzymes are produced
enzyme amylase where produced salivary glands, pancreas, small intestine

protease stomach, pancreas, small intestine lipase pancreas, small intestine

Overall, this means that: Amylase catalyses the breakdown of starch into sugars in the mouth and small intestine. Proteases catalyse the breakdown of proteins into amino acids in the stomach and small intestine. Lipases catalyse the breakdown of fats and oils into fatty acids and glycerol in the small intestine.

Other substances in digestion

Enzymes in the stomach The stomach produces hydrochloric acid. This helps to begin digestion, and it kills many harmful microorganisms that might have been swallowed along with the food. The enzymes in the stomach work best in acidic conditions - in other words, at a low pH. Enzymes in the small intestine After the stomach, food travels to the small intestine. The enzymes in the small intestine work best in alkaline conditions, but the food is acidic after being in the stomach. A substance called bile neutralises the acid to provide the alkaline conditions needed in the small intestine.

Enzymes in industry
The names of the different types of enzymes usually end in the letters -ase. Three of the most common enzymes with their chemical actions are: lipase - breaks down fats protease - breaks down proteins carbohydrase - breaks down carbohydrates

protease used to pre-digest proteins during the manufacture of baby foods lipase used - together with protease - in biological detergents to break down - digest - the substances in stains into smaller, water soluble substances

carbohydrase used to convert starch syrup, which is relatively cheap, into sugar syrup, which is more valuable - for example, as an ingredient in sports drinks isomerase used to convert glucose syrup into fructose syrup - fructose is sweeter than glucose, so it can be used in smaller amounts in slimming foods

What are enzymes? Living things. Yeast cells. Proteins.

What happens to enzymes at very high temperatures?

They are killed. They catalyse lots of different reactions. They are denatured.
The correct equation for aerobic respiration is:

What type of substances do lipases break down?

fats proteins carbohydrates

carbon dioxide + oxygen = glucose + water glucose + oxygen = carbon dioxide + water glucose + carbon dioxide = oxygen + water
One job of bile is to:

What is the optimum temperature for an enzyme?

The temperature at which it becomes denatured. The temperature at which its activity is greatest. Always 37C.

neutralise the alkali produced by the pancreas

neutralise the acid produced by the stomach neutralise the acid produced by bacteria in the mouth