Free walls, roofs and billboards

Wind loading and structural response

Lecture 22 Dr. J.D. Holmes
Free walls, roofs and billboards
free-standing walls
elevated walls and billboards
free roofs and canopies
2
h a 2
1
L w
pn
U
p p
C

=
2
h a 2
1
L U
pn
U
p p
C

=
Free walls, roofs and billboards
attached canopies
solar panels
Free walls, roofs and billboards
free-standing walls
wind at 90
o
to plane of wall (lecture 8, Chapter 4)
C
D
= 1.2
TWO-DIMENSIONAL WALL
Ground
SQUARE WALL
C
D
= 1.1
Ground
reference U taken as U
h
(top of wall)
Free walls, roofs and billboards
free-standing walls
wind at 90
o
to plane of wall (lecture 8, Chapter 4)
reference U taken as U
h
(top of wall)
Free walls, roofs and billboards
free-standing walls
wind at 90
o
to plane of wall
Jensen Number (h/z
o
) = 50 to 160
Mean
Maximum
b
h
0.1 1 10 100
b/h
4




3




2



1




0
Cpn
Free walls, roofs and billboards
free-standing walls
wind at 45
o
to plane of wall
Jensen Number (h/z
o
) = 50 to 160
0.1 1 10 100
b/h
4



3



2



1



0
Cpn
Mean
Maximum
b
h
Free walls, roofs and billboards
free-standing walls
wind at 45
o
to plane of wall
Net pressure difference high for first 1-2 wall
heights from windward end
mean C
pn

1.6 1.0
1.9
1.4 0.7
1.1 0.8 0.6 0.4 1.6 2.2
1.8 2.7 1.4 1.1 1.0 0.8 0.7 0.6
b/h=2
b/h=3
b/h=5
b/h=10
Free walls, roofs and billboards
free-standing walls
wind at 45
o
to plane of wall
Effect of corner is to reduce largest net pressure
mean C
pn

0.1 1 10 100
y/h
4




3




2




1



0
C
pn

no corner 45
corner 45
infinite 45
corner 225
no corner 225
45
225
y
Free walls, roofs and billboards
Parallel free-standing walls
(noise barriers on urban freeways)
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
wall spacing/wall height
N
e
t

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
s
Mean
r.m.s.
Maximum
Minimum

Shielding
significant shielding effects up to 10 wall heights separation
s
h
wind at 0
o
to plane of walls
Free walls, roofs and billboards
Billboards
wind at 0
o
to plane of board
effect of elevation : increase magnitude of mean net pressure coefficient
=
= C
pn
~ 1.5
mean C
pn

Free walls, roofs and billboards
Billboards
wind at 45
o
to plane of board
45
o

1.5
1.1
2c
c
c
Ground
mean C
pn

Free walls, roofs and billboards
s
B
h
SOLID SIGN OR
FREESTANDING WALL
GROUND SURFACE
CASE A
WIND
NORMAL TO
WALL
New table proposed for ASCE-7-05
Solid freestanding walls and solid signs
Force coefficients C
f
given as function of

clearance ratio,

s/h, and aspect ratio, B/s
CASE B
WIND AT 45
TO WALL
Free walls, roofs and billboards
Walls on bridges
wind at 0
o
to plane of wall
0
1
2
3
4
5
0 1 2 3 4
s/h
Cp
upwind
wall
Mean
r.m.s.
Maximum
s
Coefficients based onU at top of wall : little effect of s/h ratio
Free walls, roofs and billboards
Free-standing roofs
Usual convention : positive net pressure is downwards

p
net
flat

p
net
pitched

p
net
troughed
Free walls, roofs and billboards
Free-standing roofs

p
net
Free walls, roofs and billboards
Free-standing roofs
Effect of stored goods : flow stagnates underneath - p
net
goes more negative

p
net
Free walls, roofs and billboards
Free-standing roofs
upper surface pressures dominate - especially near the ridge
pitched - full scale

-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
0 4.65 9.3
Distance from leading edge (m)
M
e
a
n

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
Upper surface
Lower surface
d=9.3 m
Free walls, roofs and billboards
Free-standing roofs
C
pn
averaged over half a roof
pitched - model tests
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
angle of attack (degrees)
C
p

(
m
e
a
n
)
5 degrees pitch 10 degrees pitch
15 degrees pitch 22.5 degrees pitch
30 degrees pitch
high positive and negative values for
roof pitches of 22.5
o
and 30
o

Free walls, roofs and billboards
Attached canopies (over loading bays etc.)
when mounted near the top of the wall, uplift force is high
zero pitch - model scale
h
h
c

w
c

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Canopy height-to-width ratio, h
c
/w
c

h
c
/h =1
h
c
/h=0.75
h
c
/h=0.5
-4.0




-3.0



-2.0



-1.0



0.0
C
pn

or 4.0, whichever is the lesser
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
c
c
pn
w
h
1.3 1.0 C

-
or 4.0, whichever is the lesser
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
c
c
pn
w
h
0.4 1.0 C

-
Free walls, roofs and billboards
Solar panels
wind loads are affected by many parameters :
on roofs of buildings

o

|

l


d

c

e

w

h
1

h
2
Free walls, roofs and billboards
Solar panels
stand-off distance reduces net load normal to roof
higher roof pitch produces less uplift force
panel near eaves or gable ends experience higher loads
generally better to mount parallel to roof slope (| = 0)


End of Lecture 22

John Holmes
225-405-3789 JHolmes@lsu.edu