TRANSPORT

TRANSPORT SYSTEM
Protozoans are able to obtain oxygen and nutrients and eliminate carbon dioxide by diffusion through the plasma membrane. Because they have a large total surface area to volume ratio. Hence, do not need an internal transport system. Simple multicelllular organism (eg. flatworm) have thin flattened bodies to provide large surface area for diffusion.

In hydra, water circulates in and out of the bodys gut cavity by diffusion or active transport. How about larger multicellular organism?

TRANSPORT SYSTEM

In multicellular organisms, the total surface area to volume ratio decreases and cells are often located far away fm the external surface of the body. This are limiting factors to cellular activities in larger multicellular organisms. These organisms have developed specialised structures that increase the surface area for the exchange of substances and an internal transport system of tubes vessel CIRCULATORY SYSTEM to transport substances in their bodies.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM IN HUMANS AND ANIMALS

The circulatory system includes the medium, vessels and pump. Medium the fluid that flows in the circulatory system. Blood Haemolymph (in vertebrates such as insect) Vessels arteries, veins and capillaries. Pump heart creates the pressure that force the blood through blood vessels.

COMPOSITION OF HUMAN BLOOD

ERYTHROCYTES
Small biconcave discs with a diameter of 8m and thickness of 2m. To increase the surface area for gaseous exchange through the thin cell membrane. Produced in bone marrow at the rate of about two millions cells per second. Circulate in the body for about 120 days After that, destroyed by the phagocytes in the liver In human and other mammals, erythrocytes have no nucleus space for great quantities of haemoglobin.

ERYTHROCYTES
Haemoglobin a protein which contains iron. Function of haemoglobin to transport oxygen Combine with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin (bright red) Without oxygen (dark red) When the partial pressure of oxygen is high in the lungs, haemoglobin will combine with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin. When the partial pressure of oxygen is low as in respiring tissues, the oxyhaemoglobin dissociates and oxygen released. A small amount of carbon dioxide can also bind with haemoglobin to form carbaminohaemoglobin to be carried to lungs.

LEUCOCYTES (WHITE BLOOD CELLS)

Responsible for the defence of organism against diseases. About 6000 to 10000 leucocytes in every mililitre of blood. Leucocytes have nuclei but do not have haemoglobin Larger than erythrocytes and do not have fixed shape. Are manufactured in bone marrow but may migrate to the thymus gland or lymph nodes for their growth and development stages.

 Two basics types of leucocyte, Granulocytes Have granular cytoplasm and lobed nuclei Three types of granulocytes: Neutrophils phagocytes Eosinophil help to control allergic responses Basophils secrete heparin to prevent blood from clotting

 Agranulocytes Have relatively clear cytoplasm and their nuclei are not lobed. Two types of agranulocytes: Monocytes The largest leucocytes Spend only a few days in blood and then moved to the body tissues to become phagocytic macrophages Lymphocytes Smallest leucocytes Produce antibody to aid in destruction of phatogens or neutralise toxins

PLASMA

PLASMA
Is the pale yellow liquid part of the blood. It is made up of 90% water and 10% dissolved solutes. The dissolved solute consist of digested nutrients, dissolved gases, minerals, hormones, plasma proteins and excretory wastes. Blood serum is the same as plasma except that clotting factors such as fibrin have been removed.

FUNCTION OF BLOOD IN TRANSPORT

Transport of oxygen Transport of carbon dioxide Transport of absorbed food materials Transport of excretory waste products Transport of heat Transport of hormones Transport of water to tissues

FUNCTION OF HAEMOLYMPH IN TRANSPORT

Haemolymph is circulating blood-like fluid found in some invertebrates with open circulatory systems. The haemolymph is not confined to vessels only. In insect, their tubular hearts pump the haemolymph into fluid-filled spaces called haemocoel. The haemolymph bathes the tissues and internal organs directly. Nutrients and hormones diffuse from the haemolymph into the cells. Waste products diffuse out from the cells into the surrounding haemolymph.

STRUCTURE OF HUMAN BLOOD VESSELS

Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. Branch out into smaller vessels called arterioles. The arterioles branch to form tiny vessels with thin walls called capilaries. Capillaries The sites for the exchange of respiratory gases, nutrients anda wastes. Capillaries join with one another to form venules. Venules join together to form veins. Veins Transport blood back to the heart.

HEART
Dark red cone-shaped muscular organ in thoracic cavity. It is the size of clenched fist and weighs from 350 to 450 grams. Located between the lungs with its apex slightly orientated to the left. Has four chambers: two upper thin-walled atria and two lower thick-walled ventricles. Right chambers with left chambers separated by septum. The valves ensure that blood flows only in one direction.

VALVES
The valve between the left atrium and left ventricle is the bicuspid valve. The valve between the right atrium and right ventricle is the tricuspid valve. The valves at the base of the aorta and pulmonary artery are the semilunar valves.

HEART
The heart is mainly made up of myogenic cardiac muscles. The heart muscles contract and relax automatically throughout life and are not controlled by the nervous system. Funtions like two pump : Right pump forces deoxygenated blood to lungs Left pump forces oxygenated blood to other parts of the body. The sino-artrial node (SAN) is a group of specialised cells located in the right arterial wall, near the entrance of the anterior vena cave acts like a pacemaker which initiates the heartbeat. SAN generates a wave of excitatory impulses which spread to the two atria, causing them to contract simultaneously blood is forced from the atria into the ventricles.

 The second node, the artrio-ventricular node (AVN), lying at the base of the right atrium, is then stimulate. Impulses from the AVN are conducted by specialised muscle fibres called bundle of His and Purkinje fibres. This causes the contraction of both ventricles to pump the blood out of the heart.

 The right ventricle pumps the blood into the pulmonary artery forces the blood to the lungs. The left ventricle (thicker and more muscular) pump blood through the aorta to the other arteries in the body. The cardiac cycle is the series of events that occur during one complete heartbeat. Includes the contraction (systole) and relaxation (diastole) of both atria and the ventricles.

 When the body moves, the skeletal muscles around the veins contract and press on the veins. The blood pressure increases, forces open the valves and pushes the blood towards the heart. The valves in the veins prevent the blood from flowing backwards. The sympathetic nerve carrying impulses to the heart can increase the heart rate and the parasympathetic nerve can slow it down.

REGULATORY MECHANISM OF BLOOD PRESSURE

Blood pressure is the force of the blood exerted on the walls of the arterial blood vessels. Arterial blood pressure is highest during ventricular systole, and lowest during diastole. Normal blood pressure is 120 (systolic)/80 (diastolic) mm Hg. Baroreceptors monitor the pressure of blood flowing to the body and to the brain.

 An increase in blood pressure stretches the baroreceptors and sent impulses to the cardiovascular control centre in the medula oblongata. From there, impulses are then sent via the parasympathetic nerve to the heart. This slows down the heartbeat, resulting in a decrease in blood pressure. A decrease in blood pressure increase stimulation of the SAN by the sympathetic nerve. This increases the contraction of the cardiac muscles of the heart and the smooth muscles of the arteries. The blood pressure increases and returns to its normal level. Blood pressure can be measured by sphygmomanometer.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS IN FISH, AMPHIBIANS AND HUMANS

Vertebrates have a closed circulatory system where the blood flows under pressure through closed vessels in a continuous circuit around the body.

FISH CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Has a single closed circulatory system. Has a heart consisting of two separate chambers: an atrium and a ventricle. The deoxygenated blood enters the atrium and then the ventricle. The ventricle pumps the blood to the capillaries in the gills where the gaseous exchange occurs. The pressure drops as the oxygenated blood leaves the gills and flows back to the heart. The blood flows through the heart only once in a complete cycle.

AMPHIBIANS CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Can carry out gaseous exchange through their skin and lungs. Has a double closed circulatory system ; a pulmonary circulation system to and from the lungs and a systemic circulation system to the other parts of the body. Has three chambered heart with two atria and one ventricle (are not seperated by a septum) Oxygenated blood is mixed with deoxygenated blood in the ventricle. When on land, amphibians such as frogs breathe air into their lungs for gaseous exchange, but when they dive under water, the lungs are not used for respiration. The ventricle diverts the blood from the lungs to the other body tissues.

MAMMALS/HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Mammals/human have a high metabolic rate and their tissues need a rich supply of oxygen and nutrients. Have a double closed circulatory system consisting of the pulmonary and systemic circulatory system. The blood enters the heart twice during one complete cycle. Has four chambered heart which acts as two separate pumps. Four chambered heart prevents the mixing of the oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. Also prevents high blood pressure from damaging the fine capillaries of the lungs.

NECESSITY FOR BLOOD CLOTTING

To prevent excessive blood loss from the body when there is damage to the blood vessels. Prevents blood pressure from falling to a low level as pressure is needed to maintain proper blood circulation. Seals a wound and prevents the entry of microorganisms and foreign particles into the body through the wound.

BLOOD CLOTTING MECHANISM

When you get a cut, the blood vessels around the wound immediately constrict to reduce blood loss. The platelets in the blood become sticky and clump together to plug the wound. Clotting factors are released by platelets and damaged tissues which set off a chain of reactions. Thrombokinase, in the presence of factor VIII, converts prothrombin into thrombin. The formation of prothrombin in the liver requires vitamin K. Thrombin converts a soluble plasma protein, fbrinogen, into insoluble fibrin fibres which form a meshwork of threads over the wound. Erythrocytes and platelets are trapped in the fibrin fibres and a blood clot forms. It dries to form a scab.

BLOOD CLOTTING MECHANISM

CONSEQUENCES OF AN IMPAIRED BLOOD CLOTTING MECHANISM

Some people lack the gene for the production of certain clotting factors, for example, factor VIII. They suffer from a disease called haemophilia. Causes serious bleeding particularly in the joints. Factor VIII can now be produced by genetic engineering and are used in the treatment of haemophilia. Sometimes a local blood clot (thrombus) is formed on the damaged rough inner wall of the artery. May cause blockage of the artery, a condition known as thrombosis. When the thrombus dislodges and is carried away by blood circulation, it is known as an embolus. The embolus may be trapped in a small artery where it blocks the blood flow this condition is called embolism.

 If the coronary artery is partially blocked, it can cause chest pains called angina. A total blockage, which cut off the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the heart muscles, causes a heart attack (myocardial infarction). A stroke occurs if there is a blockage of blood to the brain cells. The gradual deposition of cholesterol and fats beneath the inner lining of the artery wall leads to the narrowing of lumen called atherosclerosis.

THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

FORMATION OF THE INTERSTITIAL FLUID. Once the fluid leaves the capillary walls, it is called interstitial or tissue fluid. Interstitial fluid is similar in composition to blood plasma but it has no erythrocytes, platelets or large protein molecules as these are too large to pass through the capillary walls. IMPORTANCEOF THE INTERSTITIAL FLUID It forms the internal environment of the body. The internal environment of the body is kept within a normal range by homeostatic processes. Oxygen and nutrients diffuse from the blood through the interstitial fluid and into the cells. Excretory wastes products, diffuse out of the cells into the interstitial fluid.

FATE OF THE INTERSTITIAL FLUID

Approximately 90% of the interstitial fluid lows back into the venous end of the capillary system where the hydrostatic pressure is low. The remaining 10% of the interstitial fluid enters the lymphatic capillaries and is called lymph.

STRUCTURE OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

The lymphatic system consists of a network of lymphatic capillaries, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes and certain organs. Lymph is the colourless fluid found in the lymphatic vessels. Similar in composition to blood plasma but has no erythrocytes, platelets or large protein molecules. Contains a higher number of lymphocytes than blood. Lymph travels through the lymphatic vessels by the contraction of the surrounding skeletal muscles. The lymph flows in one direction one end of the vessels is closed. Back flow of the lymph is prevented by the valves present in the larger vessels.

 The vessels from the left side of the body, the alimentary cannal and the right side of the lower part of the body flow into thoracic duct the largest lymphatic vessel. It carries lymph to the left subclavian vein and back into the bloodstream. The right lymphatic duct transport lymph from the right side of the head and chest into the right subclavian vein. Lymph nodes are mainly found at the neck, armpits and the groin.

ROLE OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM IN TRANSPORT

The lymphatic system collects the interstitial fluid and returns it to the circulatory system. Lacteals absrob fats and fat-soluble vitamins and transport them to the blood circulatory system. The lymph nodes filter out bacteria and other foreign particles because of the present phagocytes which engulf and destroy these foreign particles. Lymphocytes in the lymphatic tissues produce antibodies.

ROLE OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM IN THE BODYS DEFENCE MECHANISMS

Some organisms are pathogenic and can cause diseases when they enter the human body. These pathogens can be transmitted by air, contamined food or drinking water and animal vectors. Some skin diseases even can be transmitted by contact.

THE THREE LINES OF THE BODYS DEFENCE MECHANISMS

FIRST LINE OF DEFENCE The skin and mucous membranes act as the first line of defence. Acts as a physical barrier. Because it is made up of a dead keratinised layer which is difficult to penetrate.

If there is a cut, the blood clots quickly to seal the wound. Tears (secreted by tear glands) and acidic sebum (secreted by sebaceous glands) contain lysozymes to destroy bacteria. Mucus (secreted by mucous membranes in the nasal cavity and trachea) trap dust particles and bacterial spores.

 The cilia in the respiratory tract sweep the trapped particles to the pharynx. When microorganisms enter the stomach, they are killed by the hydrochloric acid in the gastric juices.

 SECOND LINE OF DEFENCE If pathogens get through the first line of defence, they will meet the second line of defences. Some white blood cells, such as neutrophils act as phagocytes they are attracted by chemicals produced at the sites of infection. The phagocytes move towards the pathogens and engulf them by phagocytosis. Digestive enzymes are secreted into the phagocytic vacuoles to destroy and digest the bacteria. Sometimes the phagocytes are destroyed by toxins produced by pathogens. When there is an infection, the number of white blood cells increases in the body to try to destroy the pathogens.

 THIRD LINE OF DEFENCE The third line of body defence is the lymphocytes. There are two main types of lymphocytes T-lymphocytes attack cells infected by pathogens or produce certain chemicals to coordinate immune response B-lymphocytes produce antibodies Antibody - a protein produced by lymphocytes in rsponse to the presence of an antigen. Antigen a foreign substance which stimulates the body to produce the antibodies. The antibodies are specific in action and promote the destruction of antigens in different ways.

 After an infection, some lymphocytes remain in the body as memory cells which may last for several months or years. The memory lymphocytes help to defend the body against further infection by the same antigen. The body is then said to be immune against the particular disease.

TYPES OF IMMUNITY
Immunity

active

passive

natural

artificial

natural

artificial

IMMUNITY
Immunity refers to the ability of an organism to defend itself against infection by pathogens. Depends on the presence of lymphocytes and the production of antibodies which give a specific immune response.

ACTIVE IMMUNITY
Immunity conferred by recovering from an infections disease. Depends on the response of a persons own immune system. Natural active immunity The body has the ability to produce more antibodies against further attack by the same type of antigen. Is acquired after a person recovers from an infection. Artificial active immunity Active because the antibodies are produced by the body itself. Obtained through vaccination (immunisation) Vaccine contains killed or weaken antigens When the vaccine is injected into the bloodstream, the lymphocytes in the body produce antibodies against that particular antigen.

PASSIVE IMMUNITY
Antibodies that be transferred from one individual to another. Natural passive immunity Antibodies that are transported from the mother across the plaacenta to the foetus or through the mothers milk to the young infant. If the mother immune to chicken pox, infant will also temporarily immune too. Artificial passive immunity Obtained by injecting serum containing specific antibodies prepared from the blood of humans or other animals. Normally used to treat patients who are already serious ill. Give quick temporary immunity and last only a few weeks. Cannot be replaced.

THE TRANSPORT OF SUBSTANCES IN PLANTS

NECESSITY FOR TRANSPORT OF SUBSTANCES IN PLANTS. Water and mineral salts absorbed by the roots have to be transported to all parts of the plant. Small multicellular plants such as liverworts have thin flattened bodies to provide a large TSA/V ratio and short distance for diffusion of substances therefore they do not require an internal transport system. In large flowering plants, there is a smaller TSA/V ratio and substances have to move a greater distance in these plants, the transport of substances is carried out by an internal system of tubes. Plants are less active than animals the energy requirements of plant cells are generally lower than animal cells. Plants therefore have a slower and less elaborate transport system than the blood circulatory system of animals.

VASCULAR TISSUES IN STEMS, ROOTS AND LEAVES

Vascular system consist of xylem and phloem tissues. Function as two separate transport systems in plants. The xylem tissues give support and mainly transport water and mineral ions, from the roots to the upper parts of the plant, against gravitational pull. The phloem tissues transport organic food substances synthesised by the leaves during photosynthesis to other parts of the plant. The xylem and phloem transport systems are not involved in the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide. The movement of gases between the cells and their environment is by diffusion.

STRUCTURE OF XYLEM IN RELATION TO TRANSPORT

Xylem has two important functions. It transport water and dissolved mineral salts from the roots to the stem, leaves, flowers and fruits. It also provides mechanical support to the plant. In flowering plants, the xylem consists mainly of vessels, tracheids and parenchyma. Xylem vessels are long, hollow, continuous tubes. The cell walls of xylem vessels are strengthened by lignin deposited in various patterns prevents the collapse of the vessels and provides mechanical support. There is no protoplasm in the vessels to obstruct the flow of water.

Conifers and ferns do not have xylem vessels. They have tracheids which are less efficient in conducting water. Tracheids do not have open ends to form a continuous hollow tube. Water has to pass from cell to cell through openings called pits.

STRUCTURE OF PHLOEM IN RELATION TO TRANSPORT

The phloem transport organic food substances, from the leaves both upwards and downwards to various plant parts. The phloem tissue consists mainly of sieve tubes and companion cells. A sieve tube is a cylindrical tube consisting of elongated living sieve tube cells. The cross-walls separating the sieve tube cells are perforated by small pores. The walls look like a sieve and are called sieve plates.

 There are cytoplasmic connections between the sieve tube cells through the sieve pores. This allows the flow of dissolved food substances from one sieve tube cell to the next. In a mature sieve tube, many organelles including the nucleus degenerate. There is a thin layer of cytoplasm lining the thin cellulose wall. This allows for the rapid flow of liquid through the sieve tube. Companion cells are found only in flowering plants. They are adjacent and closely associated with the sieve tube cells. Companion cells help to transport manufactured food, from the leaf cells into the sieve tubes.

TRANSPORT OF SUBSTANCES IN PLANTS

TRANSLOCATION Translocation is the two-directional transport, upwards or downwards by the phloem from the leaves to other parts of the plant. TRANSPIRATION Transpiration is the loss of water in the form of water vapour from a plant to atmosphere. Transpiration creates a transpirational pull that draws water and dissolved mineral salts from the roots to the leaves. Evaporation of water from the leaves

PATHWAY OF WATER FROM THE SOIL TO THE LEAVES Water and mineral ions are usually absorbed by the younger roots. The cell sap in root hair cells contain sugars, amino acids and salts. It is more concentrated than the surrounding soil solution. Water diffuses into the roots by osmosis. The entry of water into a root cells dilutes the cell sap. The cell sap of the adjacent cortex cell would then be more concentrated, causing water diffuse across the root, from cell to cell by osmosis.

 Mineral ions are actively pumped from the root cells into the solution in the xylem vessels. These vessels found in the roots then become more concentrated therefore water enters the xylem from the root cells by osmosis. This creates an upward force called root pressure which helps to push water up to a certain height in the plants. Other factors are also involved which is capillary action and transpirational pull.

 In plants, capillary actions is due to combined forces of cohesion and adhesion. Water molecules form a continuous water column in the xylem vessels due to cohesion. Adhesive forces between water molecules and the xylem walls enable water to move up along the narrow xylem vessels.

 During the day, water evaporates from the mesophyll cells into the intercellular air spaces of leaves. The water vapour then diffuses from the intercellular air spaces through the open stomata into the surrounding air. The loss of water from the mesophyll cells is replaced by water which flows in from the top part of the xylem vessels in the leaves. This creates a suction force called transpirational pull that moves the continuous water from the roots to the leaves. The continuous flow of water through the plant is known as the transpiration stream.

How plant remove excess water? Plant have special glands called hydathodes located at the leaf edge. The root pressure generated forces the water out of the hydathodes. This process is called guttation. Guttation happens on night that are hot and humid.

 OPENING AND CLOSING OF STOMATA Dicotyledonous leaves have a stomata on the lower surface. Monocotyledonous leaves have stomata on both the upper and lower surfaces. During the day, photosynthesis takes place. Glucose is produce and increase the osmotic pressure in the guard cells. Potassium ions (K+) are actively transported from the epidermal cells into the guard cells. The accumulation of potassium ions also increases the osmotic pressure in the guard cells. Water enters by osmosis from the surrounding epidermal cells into the guard cells. The guard cells become turgid and curve outward and the stomata open.

At night photosynthesis does not occur. Potassium ions move out of the guard cells into the epidermal cells. The osmotic pressure in the guard cells decreases. Water diffuses out into the surrounding epidermal cells by osmosis. The guard cells become flaccid and the stomata close.

 FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION. The evaporation of water from plant to the surroundings is affected by environmental factors such as Air movement Temperature Light intensity Relative humidity

 AIR MOVEMENT Moving air carries water vapour away rapidly outside the stomata so that more water molecules can diffuse to the surroundings. The rate of transpiration increases in windy conditions. TEMPERATURE High temperatures increase the rate of transpiration. Increasing temperature increases the kinetic energy of water molecules, causing them to move faster through the stomata. High temperature reduce the humidity of the surrounding air and increase the rate of transpiration. The processes are reversed by low temperature and the rate of transpiration decreases.

 LIGHT INTENSITY During the day, higher light intensity stimulates stomatal opening and increases the rate of transpiration. In the dark, stomata close and the rate of transpiration decreases. RELATIVE HUMIDITY When the relative atmospheric humidity is high, the air saturated with water vapour and water unable to evaporate from plant cells. Dry air (relative low humidity) increases the concentration gradient of water between the leaves and the surrounding sir, and the transpiration rate increases.