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Eg: Carbon -6 neutrons +6 protons=12 mass number - 7 neutrons + 6 protons =13 mass number (isotope)
Chemical Bonding
Unfilled electron orbitals allow formation of chemical bonds, and atoms are most stable when each electron orbital is filled.
Covalent bond: Each atoms unpaired valence electrons are shared by both nuclei to fill their orbitals. Substances held together by covalent bonds are called molecules.
Ionic bond: Electrons are transferred from one atom to another.
Covalent Bonds
Electrons are not always shared equally. An atom in a molecule with a high electronegativity will hold the electrons more tightly and have a partial negative charge (), whereas the other atom will have a partial positive charge (+). O> N> C=~ H Differences in electronegativity dictate how electrons are distributed in covalent bonds. Nonpolar covalent bond: Electrons are evenly shared between two atoms and the bond is symmetrical. Polar covalent bond: Electrons are asymmetrically shared.
Atoms with more than one unpaired electron can form multiple single bonds or double or triple bonds.
Representing Molecules
The shape of a simple molecule is governed by the geometry of its bonds.
Molecular formulas indicate the numbers and types of atoms in a molecule (e.g., H2O, CH4).
Structural formulas indicate which atoms are bonded together and whether the bonds are single, double, or triple bonds. Ball-and-stick models and space-filling models show 3D geometry.
Chemical Reactions
Chemical reactions occur when: 1. One substance is combined with another. Atoms are rearranged in molecules, or small molecules combine to form larger molecules. 2. One substance is broken down into another substance. Molecules are split into atoms or smaller molecules. In most cases, chemical bonds are broken and new bonds form.
Quantifying Molecules
The molecular weight of a molecule is the sum of the mass numbers of all the atoms in the molecule. Eg: water =1+1+16=18g One mole, or 6.022 1023 molecules, has a mass equal to the molecular weight expressed in grams. The concentration of a substance in a solution is typically expressed as molarity (M), which is the number of moles per liter. Eg: NaCl=23+35=58g =1 mole 58g in 1l of water = 1M(molarity)
Hydrogen bonds are the weak electrical attractions between the partially negative oxygen of one water molecule and the partially positive hydrogen of a different water molecule. Can also form between a water molecule and another polar molecule.
Hydrogen bonding makes it possible for almost any charged or polar molecule to dissolve in water.
Water also has several remarkable properties, largely due to its ability to form hydrogen bonds. Water is: 1. Cohesive 2. Adhesive 3. Denser liquid is denser than solid 4. Able to absorb large amounts of energy5. Surface tension-water surface elastic property
Greater H+ concentration lower pH more acidic Lower H+ concentration higher pH more basic/alkaline
Buffers are compounds that minimize changes in pH.
What Is Energy?
Energy is the capacity to do work or supply heat. This capacity exists in one of two waysas a stored (potential) or -as an active motion (kinetic).
The first law of thermodynamics states that energy is conserved it cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be transferred or transformed.
The spontaneity of a reaction is determined by two factors: 1. The amount of potential energy Products of spontaneous reactions have less potential energy than the reactants. Eg: methane react with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water 2. The degree of order Products of spontaneous reactions are less ordered than the reactants. Eg:TNT explodes and give carbon dioxyde,carbon monoxide, various nitrogen oxide gasses
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In general, physical and chemical processes proceed in the direction that results in lower potential energy and increased disorder.
G < 0 is an exergonic spontaneous reaction. G > 0 is an endergonic reaction that requires energy input. G = 0 is a reaction that is at equilibrium.
Key Concepts
Molecules form when atoms bond to each other. Chemical bonds are based on electron sharing. The degree of electron sharing varies depending on the type of bond formed. Of all small molecules, water is the most important for life. Water is highly polar and readily forms hydrogen bonds, making it an extremely efficient solvent.
Key Concepts
Energy is the capacity to do work or supply heat, and can be (1) a stored potential or (2) an active motion. Chemical energy is a form of potential energy, stored in chemical bonds. Chemical reactions tend to be spontaneous if they lead to lower potential energy and higher entropy, and nonspontaneous if they require an input of energy. Most of the important compounds in organisms contain carbon.