Basic Encoding Techniques

Digital data to analog signal

Amplitude-shift keying (ASK)
Amplitude difference of carrier frequency
Frequency-shift keying (FSK)
Frequency difference near carrier frequency
Phase-shift keying (PSK)
Phase of carrier signal shifted
Amplitude-Shift Keying
One binary digit represented by presence of
carrier, at constant amplitude
Other binary digit represented by absence of
carrier




where the carrier signal is Acos(2f
c
t)

( )

= t s
( ) t f A
c
t 2 cos
0
1 binary
0 binary
Binary Frequency-Shift Keying (BFSK)
Two binary digits represented by two different
frequencies near the carrier frequency




where f
1
and f
2
are offset from carrier frequency f
c
by
equal but opposite amounts
( )

= t s
( ) t f A
1
2 cos t
( ) t f A
2
2 cos t
1 binary
0 binary
Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying
(MFSK)
More than two frequencies are used


f
i
= f
c
+ (2i 1 M)f
d
f
c
= the carrier frequency
f
d
= the difference frequency
M = number of different signal elements = 2
L
L = number of bits per signal element
( ) t f A t s
i i
t 2 cos =
M i s s 1
Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying
(MFSK)
Total bandwidth required
2Mf
d
Minimum frequency separation required
2f
d
=1/T
s
Therefore, modulator requires a bandwidth of
W
d
=2
L
/LT=M/T
s
Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying
(MFSK)
Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
Two-level PSK (BPSK)
Uses two phases to represent binary digits
( )

= t s
( ) t f A
c
t 2 cos
( ) t t + t f A
c
2 cos
1 binary
0 binary

=
( ) t f A
c
t 2 cos
( ) t f A
c
t 2 cos
1 binary
0 binary
Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
Differential PSK (DPSK)
Phase shift with reference to previous bit
Binary 0 signal burst of same phase as previous signal
burst
Binary 1 signal burst of opposite phase to previous
signal burst
Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
Four-level PSK (QPSK)
Each element represents more than one bit
( )

= t s
|
.
|

\
|
+
4
2 cos
t
t t f A
c 11
|
.
|

\
|
+
4
3
2 cos
t
t t f A
c
|
.
|

\
|

4
3
2 cos
t
t t f A
c
|
.
|

\
|

4
2 cos
t
t t f A
c
01
00
10
Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
Multilevel PSK
Using multiple phase angles with each angle having more
than one amplitude, multiple signals elements can be
achieved



D = modulation rate, baud
R = data rate, bps
M = number of different signal elements = 2
L
L = number of bits per signal element
M
R
L
R
D
2
log
= =
BPSK RX
DPSK TX
DEPSK
DELAYED
b(t)
Performance
Bandwidth of modulated signal (B
T
)
ASK, PSK B
T
=(1+r)R
FSK B
T
=2DF+(1+r)R

R = bit rate
0 < r < 1; related to how signal is filtered
DF = f
2
-f
c
=f
c
-f
1
Performance
Bandwidth of modulated signal (B
T
)

MPSK

MFSK


L = number of bits encoded per signal element
M = number of different signal elements
R
M
r
R
L
r
B
T
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
2
log
1 1
( )
R
M
M r
B
T
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
2
log
1
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
QAM is a combination of ASK and PSK
Two different signals sent simultaneously on the
same carrier frequency

( ) ( ) ( ) t f t d t f t d t s
c c
t t 2 sin 2 cos
2 1
+ =
Reasons for Analog Modulation
Modulation of digital signals
When only analog transmission facilities are
available, digital to analog conversion required
Modulation of analog signals
A higher frequency may be needed for effective
transmission
Modulation permits frequency division
multiplexing
Basic Encoding Techniques
Analog data to analog signal
Amplitude modulation (AM)
Angle modulation
Frequency modulation (FM)
Phase modulation (PM)
Signal Encoding Techniques
Reasons for Choosing Encoding
Techniques
Digital data, digital signal
Equipment less complex and expensive than
digital-to-analog modulation equipment
Analog data, digital signal
Permits use of modern digital transmission and
switching equipment
Reasons for Choosing Encoding
Techniques
Digital data, analog signal
Some transmission media will only propagate
analog signals
E.g., optical fiber and unguided media
Analog data, analog signal
Analog data in electrical form can be transmitted
easily and cheaply
Done with voice transmission over voice-grade
lines
Signal Encoding Criteria
What determines how successful a receiver will be in
interpreting an incoming signal?
Signal-to-noise ratio
Data rate
Bandwidth
An increase in data rate increases bit error rate
An increase in SNR decreases bit error rate
An increase in bandwidth allows an increase in data
rate
Factors Used to Compare
Encoding Schemes
Signal spectrum
With lack of high-frequency components, less bandwidth
required
With no dc component, ac coupling via transformer
possible
Transfer function of a channel is worse near band edges
Clocking
Ease of determining beginning and end of each bit position
Factors Used to Compare
Encoding Schemes
Signal interference and noise immunity
Performance in the presence of noise
Cost and complexity
The higher the signal rate to achieve a given data rate, the
greater the cost
Basic Encoding Techniques
Digital data to analog signal
Amplitude-shift keying (ASK)
Amplitude difference of carrier frequency
Frequency-shift keying (FSK)
Frequency difference near carrier frequency
Phase-shift keying (PSK)
Phase of carrier signal shifted
Basic Encoding Techniques
Performance
Bandwidth of modulated signal (B
T
)
ASK, PSK B
T
=(1+r)R
FSK B
T
=2DF+(1+r)R

R = bit rate
0 < r < 1; related to how signal is filtered
DF = f
2
-f
c
=f
c
-f
1
Performance
Bandwidth of modulated signal (B
T
)

MPSK

MFSK


L = number of bits encoded per signal element
M = number of different signal elements
R
M
r
R
L
r
B
T
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
2
log
1 1
( )
R
M
M r
B
T
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
2
log
1
Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization
process

PowerPoint









PowerPoint

V : inner product space
i. are orthogonal if <x,y>=0

ii. is orthogonal if any two distinct
elements of S are orthogonal
V y x e ,
V S _
Example (1)
Consider {(1,1,0), (1,-1,1),(-1,1,2)} in
<sol>
Let


Similarly

3
F
) 2 , 1 , 1 ( ) 1 , 1 , 1 ( ), 0 , 1 , 1 (
3 2 1
= = = w w w
0 ) 1 )( 0 ( ) 1 )( 1 ( ) 1 )( 1 (
2 1
= + + = w w
0
3 1 3 2
= = w w w w
{ } orthogonal : w , w w
3 2 1,

V : inner product space

iii. is unit vector ( ) if S is
orthogonal and consists entirely of unit
vectors.
Then we call is orthonormal
V xe
1 = x
V S _
Example (1)
Consider {(1,1,0), (1,-1,1),(-1,1,2)} in
<sol>
Let


Similarly

3
F
) 2 , 1 , 1 ( ) 1 , 1 , 1 ( ), 0 , 1 , 1 (
3 2 1
= = = w w w
0 ) 1 )( 0 ( ) 1 )( 1 ( ) 1 )( 1 (
2 1
= + + = w w
0
3 1 3 2
= = w w w w
)
`

= = =
6
w

3
w

2
w
: othonormal
6 w , 3 w , 2 w
3 2 1
3 2 1
{ } orthogonal : w , w w
3 2 1,

Gram-Schmidt Theorem
: inner product space
linearly indep subset of V
Define where



i
V
{ }
n
w w w S
2 1
, =
{ }
n
v v v S , , ,
2 1
=
'
1 2 2 1 1
cw w v w v = =
1
2
2
1 2
2 2
2
2 1 2
1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 2
,
,
0 , , , ,
w
w
w w
w v
w w w c
w w c w w w cw w w v
=
=
= = =
j
k
j
j
j k
k k
v
v
v w
w v

=
=
1
1
2
,
1
w
1
cw
2
w
2
v
Example (2)
In Let
<sol>
Take ,




Finally
3
R
( ) ( ) ( ) 1 , 2 , 2 1 , 0 , 2 0 , 1 , 1
3 2 1
= = = w w w
( ) 0 , 1 , 1
1 1
= = w v
2
1
v
( ) ( ) ( ) 1 , 1 , 1 0 , 1 , 1
2
2
1 , 0 , 2
1
2
1
1 , 2
2 2
= =
= v
v
v w
w v
( ) ( ) ( )
|
.
|

\
|

= =
=
3
2
,
3
1
,
3
1
1 , 1 , 1
3
1
0 , 1 , 1
2
4
1 , 2 , 2
, ,
2
2
2
2 3
1
2
1
1 3
3 3
v
v
v w
v
v
v v
w v