Date

The only thing more powerful than a great

idea, Presenter
is a great idea powerfully executed.
- William Blake

© Copyright 2002 Wipro Technologies 1

 Unix Overview

For WASE & Team Rainbow

1 Day Session

© Copyright 2002 Wipro Technologies

Operating Systems

 What is an Operating System?

 By operating system, we mean the suite of programs which
make the computer work. These are the set of programs which
are loaded during the startup of a computer and runs until the
system is switched off.

 It is the operating system, which loads and runs other

applications like MS-office suite or other such user
applications.

Examples of popular operating systems

 Windows
 Novell Netware
 Unix
 Single-user operating systems, like DOS, or the Macintosh
System

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Operating Systems

Single User Operating Systems

 Such operating systems allows only one user to use the
computer at a time. MS-DOS, Windows-95 etc are such
operating systems.
 Such OS are primarily used in personnel computers.

Multi-User / Multi-Tasking Operating Systems

 Such operating systems allows multiple users to use the
computer at the same time.
 Each user can run multiple programs at the same time.
 Such Operating Systems has various level of user access
privileges. Certain users (super users) will have complete
control over the system, where as other users will have only
limited access rights.
 Such restrictions are essential to control the system and to
ensure availability to the system users.
 Examples of such OS are: Unix, DB2, Windows-NT etc..

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Unix Operating System

UNIX was created in the late 1960s, in an effort to provide a multi-

user, multitasking system for use by programmers. The philosophy
behind the design of UNIX was to provide simple, yet powerful
utilities that could be pieced together in a flexible manner to
perform a wide variety of tasks.

The UNIX operating system comprises of three parts:

 The kernel
 The standard utility programs
 The system configuration files

Unix is mainly written in C and Assembly-Language.

There are various flavors available in the market.

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Unix flavors

Every Unix-box hardware vendor come out with their version of Unix.
 These versions has all Unix System V features tuned to work
with their hardware architecture.

 Available Unix Flavors

 Sequent Dynix/Ptx
 Sun Solaris
 HP-UX
 Sco Unix
 Digital Unix
 IBM AIX
 Linux

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Unix Architecture overview

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Unix Architecture overview

 Typical computer system consists of:

 Hardware
 Operating system
 Applications and utilities

 Operating system controls the computer hardware and interface

user with the hardware

 Typical OS includes a user interface or command interpreter.

 Unix is somewhat unique in that the command interpreter is not

integrated with the OS but is a separate program. This enable
vendors / developers to develop custom / better command
interpreters for Unix.

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Files and processes

 Everything in UNIX is either a file or a process.

 A process is an instance of executing program .
 Each process is identified by a unique PID (process
identifier).
 Processes can spawn other processes.

 A file is a collection of data. They are created by users using

text editors, running compilers etc. Examples of files:
 A document (report, essay etc.)
 The text of a program written in some high-level
programming language
 Instructions comprehensible directly to the machine and
incomprehensible to a casual user, for example, a collection
of binary digits (an executable or binary file);
 A directory, containing information about its contents,
which may be a mixture of other directories (subdirectories)
and ordinary files.

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The Directory Structure

All the stored information on a UNIX computer is kept in a

filesystem. Any time you interact with the UNIX shell, the shell
considers you to be located somewhere within a filesystem.
Although it may seem strange to be "located" somewhere in a
computer's filesystem, the concept is not so different from real life.
After all, you can't just be, you have to be somewhere. The place in
the filesystem tree where you are located is called the current
working directory.

CONCEPT: The UNIX filesystem is hierarchical (resembling a tree

structure). The tree is anchored at a place called the root,
designated by a slash "/". Every item in the UNIX filesystem tree is
either a file, or a directory. A directory is like a file folder. A
directory can contain files, and other directories. A directory
contained within another is called the child of the other. A directory
in the filesystem tree may have many children, but it can have only
one parent. A file can hold information, but cannot contain other
files, or directories.

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The Directory Structure

/
Working Directory
File 1
Current directory where user is placed

Sub-dir 1 Root Directory

Unix directory structure starting point
File 5

Sub-dir 3 Home Directory

File 6
Default directory for the user

File 7 Changing current working directories

cd – Set current directory to home directory
File 8
cd / - Set current directory to root
Sub-dir 2 cd .. – Set current directory one level up
cd ../.. – Set current directory two levels up
File 8 cd ../<dir> - Set current directory to sub directory a level up
Sub-dir 3
pwd – Shows the current directory
File 9

File 3 File 10

File 4

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Accessing a UNIX System

The main mode of access to a UNIX machine is through a terminal,

which usually includes a keyboard, and a video monitor. For each
terminal connected to the UNIX system, the kernel runs a process
called a tty that accepts input from the terminal, and sends output to
the terminal. tty processes are general programs, and must be told
the capabilities of the terminal in order to correctly read from, and
write to, the terminal.

Initially Unix supported only character terminals. However, later x-

Windows got evolved to provide a graphical user interface.

There are terminal programs available in Windows, which mimic a

character terminal, and through such terminal programs, a Unix
system can be accessed from Windows.

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Logging In and Logging Out

 To access a Unix system, one has to start a user session from a

terminal.

 A user session is started by providing a valid Unix user id and

password.

 Upon providing the right user id and password, Unix starts a user
session and a command interpreter is spawned.

 Command interpreter waits for the user to enter a command in its

prompt. Execute the command and waits for the next command.

 To end the session, a command “exit” is entered in the command

interpreter’s prompt. This will make the Unix to clean-up the user
session, end all user processes and remove the user session from
the system.

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Space Management / mount points

 A file system is created on a hard disk and same can be mounted on the
Unix system.
 File System creation is the process of readying a portion of hard disk for Unix to
keep its files.
 Mounting is a process by which the file system is made available to the users.

 Once mounted, the file system is available under the directory structure as a
directory.

 There are commands to describe the mounted files systems / mount points.
“df” is such a command available in Unix.

Filesystem kbytes used avail capacity Mounted on

/dev/md/dsk/d10 6050182 5701570 288111 96% /
/dev/dsk/c0t0d0s5 3009327 2852761 96380 97% /u01

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Backup & Recovery

 Backup
 Backup is the process in which data stored in a computer is copied to
an alternative storage medium (e.g Tapes, CDs etc..)
 Hot & Cold Backup
 Backups taken during the normal system operations are called hot backups.
Here the files could be get modified while backing them up.
 Cold backups are taken while system is not performing any file operations.
All cold backups will be stable and are independent backups.

 Recovery
 Process by which system’s data is restored from backup device after a
system/media crash.

 There are vendors who offer backup & recovery mechanism

(software & hardware).

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UNIX Shell

A Unix shell is the command interpreter, the primary user interface to UNIX which
interpret and execute commands

There are number of shells available.

 /bin/sh - Bourne shell
 /bin/csh - C shell
 /bin/ksh – K shell
 /bin/bash - Bourne again shell
 /bin/tcsh - modified, updated C shell

A Shell can be “tuned” for each user by keeping the initialization commands, scripts
in the shell startup file.

Shell scripting allows users to write procedural programs using shell scripting
language. These scripts can be executed within the shell.

Each Unix command consists of a command name, followed by command

options (if any are desired) and command arguments (if any are desired). The
command name, options, and arguments, are separated by blank space.
e.g: cd /

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Main memory / Shared memory

Kinds of Memory:
 Main - The physical Random Access Memory located on the CPU
motherboard that most people think of when they talk about RAM. Also
called Real Memory. This does not include processor caches, video
memory, or other peripheral memory.
 File System - Disk memory accessible via pathnames. This does not
include raw devices, tape drives, swap space, or other storage not
addressable via normal pathnames. It does include all network file
systems.
 Swap Space - Disk memory used to hold data that is not in Real or File
System memory. Swap space is most efficient when it is on a separate
disk or partition, but sometimes it is just a large file in the File System

Shared Memory
 Part of Main memory which is shared between processes across unix
users. Typically each process get part of main memory as a private
area, where only that process operates. Shared memory is the place
where multiple processes has access to.

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Unix Processes

 Foreground / Interactive Processes

 Processes that are spawned from shell command prompt. Shell waits for
the process to complete before returning the command prompt.
Command / Process output will be written to user’s terminal.

 Background processes
 Processes that are run non-interactively. Such processes are not
associated with any terminal. Kernel processes are examples of
background processes. A user can submit such processes from
command prompt by appending the command with “&” sign.

 Input / Output
 Each process has the following devices attached to it.
 Standard input – Device to get the input data. Normally the keyboard.
 Standard output – Device to output data from the process. Normally the
terminal.
 Standard error – Device to output error messages. Normally the terminal.

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User Management

 User
 Unix users created to access the system. A password is always
attached to each user id. The right combination of user id and
password allows one to access the Unix system and create a Unix
session.

 Various level of privileges can be set at the user level.

 Groups
 Unix administrator can create Groups where one or more Unix users
can made members.
 Various level of privileges can be set to group, which will be applicable
to all group members.
 One unix user can be made members of multiple groups.

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File / Directory Permissions

 Each file / directory in Unix has access permissions associated to

it.
 Read – Whether the file/directory can be read?
 Write – Whether the file/directory can be modified? In case of
directories, this means whether files can be created/modified under this
directory.
 Execute – Whether the file can be executed. Applicable for shell scripts
and other executable programs.

 Read / Write / Execute permissions are denoted by “rwx” flags.

 For each file/directory, “r,w,x” permissions are attached to User, Group

and Others level.
 User – Owner or an Administror
 Group – Unix group(s) where the user is a member of
 Others – Users who are not members of group(s) where the “User” is
member of.

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Popular Unix Commands

 Help on Unix commands are available by typing the following

command at the command prompt
 man <command Name>

User Commands man(1)

NAME
man - find and display reference manual pages

SYNOPSIS
man [ - ] [ -adFlrt ] [ -M path ] [ -T macro-package ]
[-s section ] name ...
man [ -M path ] -k keyword ...
man [ -M path ] -f file ...

DESCRIPTION
The man command displays information from the reference
manuals. It displays complete manual pages that you select
by name, or one-line summaries selected either by keyword
(-k), or by the name of an associated file (-f). If no
manual page is located, man prints an error message.

Source Format
Reference Manual pages are marked up with either nroff(1) or
sgml(5) (Standard Generalized Markup Language) tags. The
man command recognizes the type of markup and processes the

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Popular Unix Commands - Navigation

 “cd” – Change working directories

 “ls” – List directory contents
 “pwd” – Show current working directory

$
$ pwd
/u14/home/gie
$
$ cd ../..
$ pwd
/u14
$ ls
GIE_DATA_CORR.fmb home patchsso visappl
TT_DB lost+found testdata viscomn
$ ls -l
total 992
-rw-r--r-- 1 gie users 483328 Jan 7 17:20 GIE_DATA_CORR.fmb
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 512 Jan 23 20:10 TT_DB
drwxrwxrwx 10 root other 512 Dec 1 14:57 home
drwx------ 2 root root 8192 Apr 16 2002 lost+found
drwxr-xr-x 6 app1159 dba 512 Oct 15 13:43 patchsso
drwxr-xr-x 2 ora1159 dba 512 Oct 7 18:45 testdata
drwxr-xr-x 204 app1159 dba 3072 Jan 19 10:08 visappl
drwxr-xr-x 9 app1159 dba 512 Sep 3 23:29 viscomn
$
$ ls -CF
GIE_DATA_CORR.fmb home/ patchsso/ visappl/
TT_DB/ lost+found/ testdata/ viscomn/
$

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Popular Unix Commands – File Operations

 “cp” – Copy files

 “mv” – Move / Rename files
 “rm” – Remove files
 “touch” – Create file with zero bytes or mark files modified
 “chmod” – Change file permissions
 “chown” – Set the owner for the file
 “chgrp” – Set the group for the file

$ touch TeamRainbow
$ ls -l TeamRainbow
-rw-r--r-- 1 gie users 0 Jan 26 14:45 TeamRainbow
$ mv TeamRainbow Batch100
$ ls -l Batch100
-rw-r--r-- 1 gie users 0 Jan 26 14:45 Batch100
$ chmod g+w Batch100
$ ls -l Batch100
-rw-rw-r-- 1 gie users 0 Jan 26 14:45 Batch100
$
$ su
Password:
# chgrp other Batch100
# ls -l Batch100
-rw-rw-r-- 1 gie other 0 Jan 26 14:45 Batch100
#
# chown root Batch100
# ls -l Batch100
-rw-rw-r-- 1 root other 0 Jan 26 14:45 Batch100
#
# rm Batch100
#
# ls -l Batch100
Batch100: No such file or directory
#

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Popular Unix Commands – File Operations

 “mkdir” – Create Directory

 “rmdir” – Remove directories
 “cat” – Output file contents
 “pg” / “more” – Output file contents page by page

$ ls -l
total 0
-rw-r--r-- 1 rainbow rainbow 0 Jan 26 14:52 test
$ mkdir Mydir
$ ls -l
total 2
drwxr-xr-x 2 rainbow rainbow 512 Jan 26 15:03 Mydir
-rw-r--r-- 1 rainbow rainbow 0 Jan 26 14:52 test
$ cd Mydir
$ ls -l
total 0
$ cd ..
$ pwd
/u02/home/rainbow
$ rmdir Mydir
$ ls -l
total 0
-rw-r--r-- 1 rainbow rainbow 0 Jan 26 14:52 test
$
$ cat test
This is line 1
This is line 2
This is line 3
This is line 4
This is line 5
$

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Popular Unix Commands
 “clear” – Clear screen
 “date” – Displays system date
 “echo” – Prints the argument values to screen
 “file” – Shows the type of file
 “passwd” – Command to change the user password
 “uid” – Shows the current user & group details
 “ps” – Shows the current processes running

$ date
Mon Jan 26 15:14:18 IST 2004
$
$ echo This is a test
This is a test
$ echo $LOGNAME
rainbow
$ file *
test: English text
$ file /bin/at
/bin/at: ELF 32-bit MSB executable SPARC Version 1, dynamically linked, stripped
$ id
uid=1099(rainbow) gid=1005(rainbow)
$
$ passwd rainbow
Enter login password:
New password:
Re-enter new password:
passwd (SYSTEM): passwd successfully changed for rainbow
$ ps
PID TTY TIME CMD
11363 pts/7 0:00 ksh
10540 pts/7 0:00 sh
$ ps -fu gie
UID PID PPID C STIME TTY TIME CMD
gie 9235 9233 0 14:30:08 pts/7 0:00 -ksh
$ ps -l
F S UID PID PPID C PRI NI ADDR SZ WCHAN TTY TIME CMD
8 S 1099 11363 10540 0 51 20 627e21f8 207 627e2268 pts/7 0:00 ksh
8 S 1099 10540 9235 0 51 20 6344b668 121 6344b6d8 pts/7 0:00 sh
$

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Popular Unix Commands
 “cal” – Calendar program
 “cut” – Shows file contents after vertical filtration
 “grep” – Shows file contents after horizontal (lines) filtration

$ cal
January 2004
S M Tu W Th F S
1 2 3
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17
18 19 20 21 22 23 24
25 26 27 28 29 30 31

$
$ cat test
This is line 1
This is line 2
This is line 3
This is line 4
This is line 5
$
$ cut -c1-10 test
This is li
This is li
This is li
This is li
This is li
$
$ cut -d' ' -f3 test
line
line
line
line
Line
$
$ grep [35] test
This is line 3
This is line 5
$

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Popular Unix Commands
 “head” – Shows the initial part of the files
 “tail” – Shows the trailing part of the file
 “sort” – Shows the file contents after sorting

$ cat test
This is line 1
This is line 2
This is line 3
This is line 4
This is line 5
$
$ head -2 test
This is line 1
This is line 2
$
$ head -4 test
This is line 1
This is line 2
This is line 3
This is line 4
$
$ tail -3 test
This is line 3
This is line 4
This is line 5
$
$ cat test
This is line 1
This is line 2
This is line 3
This is line 4
This is line 5
$
$ sort -r test
This is line 5
This is line 4
This is line 3
This is line 2
This is line 1
$

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Popular Unix Commands

 “diff” – Shows the difference in file contents

 “find” – Command to search for file(s) in a directory structure

$ cat test
This is line 1
This is line 2
This is line 3
This is line 4
This is line 5
$
$ cat test1
This is line 1
This is line 2
This is line 3
$
$ diff test test1
4,5d3
< This is line 4
< This is line 5
$
$ cd ..
$ pwd
/u02/home
$
$ find . -name 'test' -print
./rainbow/test
./abshah/test
find: cannot read dir ./easdba/bin: Permission denied
$

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Pipe - Feature
Unix provides a powerful feature in which output from a command can be directed as input for another
command. This way, commands can be joined to process data in a very efficient manner.

Example: cat <file> | sort

Here, output of the “cat” command (file contents) are fed to command “sort”. The final output of this
command will be sorted file contents

$ cat test
John received 30 marks
Peter received 25 marks
Abraham received 15 marks

$
$ cat test | cut -d' ' -f1,3 | sort

Abraham 15
John 30
Peter 25
$
$ cat test | cut -d' ' -f1,3 | sort +1

Abraham 15
Peter 25
John 30
$

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vi – Unix Text Editor

“vi” – is the most popular text editor available in Unix. It operates in two modes,
command & input mode.
 In the command mode, vi accepts commands.
 In the input mode, whatever user types are taken as file contents.
 While in input mode, pressing “Esc” will change the mode into command mode.

Popular “vi” commands

 “i” – Goes into the input mode. Start insertion from the current cursor position.
 “a” – Goes into the input mode. Start insertion from the current cursor position + 1 (append)
 “A” – Start insertion from end of line
 “c” – Change mode. Start replacing from the current cursor position.
 “dd” – Deletes the current line
 “:w” – Perform a save operations
 “:wq” – Save and Exit
 “:q!” – Discard the changes and exit.
 “:w <file>” – Save into a different file name.
 “dw” – Delete word
 “d$” – Delete till end of line
 “/<string>” – Search for <string>
 “n” – Search for the next occurrence (find next)
 “N” – Search backwards (find previous)
 “:e <file>” – Edit the file name <file>
 “dG” – Deletes till end of file
 “u” – Undo the last command

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Shell Variables
Unix allows you to define variables within a Shell. Unlike other programming languages, Shell variables
do not have any types. All values are stored as character strings.

There are many variables defined in a user’s environment.

$ env
_=/usr/bin/env
HZ=100
PATH=/usr/bin::/usr/local/bin::/usr/opt/SUNWmd/sbin
LOGNAME=rainbow
SHELL=/bin/sh
HOME=/u02/home/rainbow
TERM=ansi
PWD=/u02/home/rainbow
TZ=IST
$
$ TESTVAR="Hello World"
$
$ echo $TESTVAR
Hello World
$
$ ksh
$
$ echo $TESTVAR

$ exit
$ export TESTVAR
$
$ ksh
$ echo $TESTVAR
Hello World
$ exit
$

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Introduction to Shell Scripting

Shell script is a script file which contains commands and other control
statements. A shell script can be executed within a Unix shell. Unix shell will
execute each line in the shell script like any other interpreter.

$ vi myshell.ksh
ls -l
date
echo "Log Name is : " $LOGNAME

~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
"myshell.ksh" [New file] 4 lines, 43 characters
$ ls -l myshell*
-rw-r--r-- 1 rainbow rainbow 43 Jan 26 16:31 myshell.ksh
$ chmod +x myshell*
$ ls -l myshell.ksh
-rwxr-xr-x 1 rainbow rainbow 43 Jan 26 16:31 myshell.ksh
$ myshell.ksh
total 6
-rwxr-xr-x 1 rainbow rainbow 43 Jan 26 16:31 myshell.ksh
-rw-r--r-- 1 rainbow rainbow 74 Jan 26 15:51 test
-rw-r--r-- 1 rainbow rainbow 45 Jan 26 15:40 test1
Mon Jan 26 16:31:42 IST 2004
Log Name is : rainbow
$

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Introduction to Shell Scripting

Shell also provides control/procedural statements for Shell

Scripting.
 for identifier [ in word ... ] ; do list ; done
 select identifier [ in word ... ] ; do list ; done
 case word in [ pattern [ | pattern ] ) list ;; ] ... Esac
 if list ; then list ;
[ elif list ; then list ; ... ] [ else list ; ] fi
 while list ; do list ; done
 until list ; do list ; done

Do a “man ksh” at the command prompt and go through the “ksh”

user manual to understand the full capabilities of ksh and also shell
scripting features.

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Class room Assignment

 Go through the “man” pages of the commands listed in the

previous slides.
 Practice them with different command options.

 Write a shell script to satisfy the following requirement.

 File “mydata.txt” has the following content (create this file using vi):
Bill 10
Joe 243
Kirthi 54
 Write a Shell script to get an output as follows (lines sorted on marks):
Bill Received 10 marks.
Kirthi Received 54 marks.
Joe Received 243 marks.

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Thank You

35